Severe corrosion damage and even complete failure was recently discovered in external post-tensioned (PT) tendons of three Florida's pre-cast, segmental bridges over seawater. A key deterioration factor was the formation of large bleed water grout voids at or near the anchorages. Steel corrosion may occur at the grout-void interface or in the air space of the void itself. Since the tendons are critical to the structural integrity of the bridges, reliable and non-intrusive damage detection methods are desirable to manage or prevent future occurrences. In recent years several indirect non-destructive methods have been developed or improved to evaluate the conditions of the tendons. One of those methods is vibration-based tension measurements, consisting of detecting tendon tension loss by analyzing the tendon's natural frequencies. Until recently, vibration-based tension measurements were costly and laborious since they required several operators to conduct the tests and complicated analysis through different programs. The first objective of this research is to provide a practical, simplified, user-friendly testing and analysis method for screening tendons by vibration measurements. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy, Linear Polarization, and Electrical Resistance are alternative methods that could nondestructively detect or monitor corrosion before strand failures occur. The reliability and sensitivity of these conventional monitoring methods in solid or liquid media are well proven. However, few investigations exist on applying these methods to air-space corrosion as it may occur in tendon anchors. The second objective of this research is to establish the feasibility of using the above conventional monitoring methods for detecting air-space corrosion. In this investigation, two different types of Electrical Resistance probes were designed and evaluated. Also, electrochemical probes were constructed simulating strands conditions in the grout-void interface. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy and Linear Polarization measurements were conducted in the electrochemical probes to calculate their instantaneous corrosion rates. Electrical Resistance and Electrochemical probes results indicate that both methods provide sufficient sensibility to determine the ongoing damage.

This thesis focuses on the forensic analysis of ten full-scale post-tensioned beam specimens after four years of aggressive exposure testing. The research was funded by FHWA and TxDOT. Post-tensioned structures have been under scrutiny due to their vulnerability to corrosion damage. Recent corrosion failures have been traced to inadequate materials and construction procedures. The purpose of this research project is to evaluate the corrosion performance of new and upcoming post-tensioning materials and systems and to determine their suitability for preventing durability issues which were found in older structures. The following variables were tested in the full-scale beam specimens: strand type, duct type, duct coupler type, anchorage type, tendon encapsulation. Non-destructive and destructive testing methods for evaluating corrosion damage were examined. Cost analysis of each material was conducted using tendon quantities from a typical post-tensioned bridge for comparison. Galvanized steel ducts performed poorly, showing substantial pitting and area loss. Plastic ducts were intact, but elevated grout chloride levels indicate that moisture was able to enter the ducts at the locations of couplers and grout vents. Strand corrosion was minor and uniform for all the types which were examined, suggesting that chloride traveled the length of the tendons through strand interstices. Stainless steel strands were nearly corrosion-free. Pourback quality was found to protect anchorages more than galvanization of bearing plates. The electrically isolated tendon did not completely prevent strand corrosion, but the system resulted in much lower chloride concentrations along the tendon than the conventional systems. / text

Posterior tibial tendon dysfunction (PTTD) is a common degenerative condition leading to a severe impairment of gait. There is currently no effective method to determine whether a patient with advanced PTTD would benefit from several months of bracing and physical therapy or ultimately require surgery. Tendon degeneration is closely associated with irreversible degradation of its collagen structure, leading to changes to its mechanical properties. If these properties could be monitored in vivo, it could be used to quantify the severity of tendonosis and help determine the appropriate treatment. Ultrasound elasticity imaging (UEI) is a real-time, noninvasive technique to objectively measure mechanical properties in soft tissue. It consists of acquiring a sequence of ultrasound frames and applying speckle tracking to estimate displacement and strain at each pixel. The goals of my dissertation were to 1) use acoustic simulations to investigate the performance of UEI during tendon deformation with different geometries; 2) develop and validate UEI as a potentially noninvasive technique for quantifying tendon mechanical properties in human cadaver experiments; 3) design a platform for UEI to measure mechanical properties of the PTT in vivo and determine whether there are detectable and quantifiable differences between healthy and diseased tendons. First, ultrasound simulations of tendon deformation were performed using an acoustic modeling program. The effects of different tendon geometries (cylinder and curved cylinder) on the performance of UEI were investigated. Modeling results indicated that UEI accurately estimated the strain in the cylinder geometry, but underestimated in the curved cylinder. The simulation also predicted that the out-of-the-plane motion of the PTT would cause a non-uniform strain pattern within incompressible homogeneous isotropic material. However, to average within a small region of interest determined by principal component analysis (PCA) would improve the estimation. Next, UEI was performed on five human cadaver feet mounted in a materials testing system (MTS) while the PTT was attached to a force actuator. A portable ultrasound scanner collected 2D data during loading cycles. Young's modulus was calculated from the strain, loading force and cross sectional area of the PTT. Average Young's modulus for the five tendons was (0.45±0.16GPa) using UEI. This was consistent with simultaneous measurements made by the MTS across the whole tendon (0.52±0.18GPa). We also calculated the scaling factor (0.12±0.01) between the load on the PTT and the inversion force at the forefoot, a measurable quantity in vivo. This study suggests that UEI could be a reliable in vivo technique for estimating the mechanical properties of the human PTT. Finally, we built a custom ankle inversion platform for in vivo imaging of human subjects (eight healthy volunteers and nine advanced PTTD patients). We found non-linear elastic properties of the PTTD, which could be quantified by the slope between the elastic modulus (E) and the inversion force (F). This slope (ΔE/ΔF), or Non-linear Elasticity Parameter (NEP), was significantly different for the two groups: 0.16±0.20 MPa/N for healthy tendons and 0.45±0.43 MPa/N for PTTD tendons. A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve revealed an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.83±0.07, which indicated that the classifier system is valid. In summary, the acoustic modeling, cadaveric studies, and in vivo experiments together demonstrated that UEI accurately quantifies tendon mechanical properties. As a valuable clinical tool, UEI also has the potential to help guide treatment decisions for advanced PTTD and other tendinopathies.

Augmented Soft Tissue Mobilization (ASTM) is a new noninvasive technique utilized to treat chronic musculoskeletal injuries. The purpose of this study was to trace the morphological events in collagenase injured rat Achilles tendons during ASTM treatment and to observe passive occurrence of post treatment remodeling in tendons. Twelve groups of rats were divided into the following categories, A) control, B) sham surgery, C) ASTM only, D) ASTM/sham , E) tendinitis, F) ASTM/tendinitis 1 week, G) ASTM/tendinits 2 weeks H) ASTM/tendinits 3 weeks I) ASTM/tendinits 4 weeks, J) Post ASTM 5 weeks, K) Post ASTM 10 weeks, L) Post ASTM 15 weeks. One week after the last designated treatment, the Achilles tendons were harvested and then prepared for light microscopy, electron microscopy, and bifringence polarizing microscopy. An increase in fibroblast activation and proliferation was noted with the tendinitis, ASTM/tendinitis, and post groups. Ossification occurred in the core of the Achilles tendon in all of the ASTM groups. The presence of inflammatory cells was observed in the tendons and longitudinal remodeling of the collagen fibers did not occur. / Department of Biology

Tenocytes are the principal cells of the human Achilles tendon. In tendinosis, changes in the metabolism and morphology of these cells occur. Neurotrophins are growth factors essential for the development of the nervous system. Tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) has been found to kill sarcomas but has destructive effects in several major diseases. The two systems have interaction effects and are associated with apoptosis, proliferation, and pain signalling in various diseases. Whether these systems are present in the Achilles tendon and in Achilles tendinosis is unknown. The hypothesis is that the tenocytes produce substances belonging to these systems. In Studies I–III, we show that the potent effects of these substances are also likely to occur in the Achilles tendon. We found tenocyte immunoreactions for the neurotrophins brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), the nerve growth factor (NGF), the neurotrophin receptor p75, and for TNF-α and both of its receptors, TNFR1 and TNFR2. This occurred in both subjects with painful mid-portion Achilles tendinosis, and in controls. Furthermore, we found mRNA expression for BDNF and TNF-α in tenocytes, which proves that these cells produce these substances. TNFR1 mRNA was also detected for the tenocytes, and TNFR1 immunoreactions were upregulated in tendinosis tendons. This might explain why tenocytes in tendinosis undergo apoptosis more often than in normal tendons. Total physical activity (TPA) level and blood concentration of both soluble TNFR1 and BDNF were measured in Study IV. The results showed that the blood concentration of both factors were similar in subjects with tendinosis and in controls. Nevertheless, the TPA level was related to the blood concentration of sTNFR1 in tendinosis, but not in controls. This relationship should be studied further. The findings of this doctoral thesis show that neurotrophin and TNF-α systems are expressed in the Achilles tendon. We believe that the functions include tissue remodelling, proliferation and apoptosis.

Introduction: Acellular scaffolds are increasingly used for the surgical repair of tendon injury and ligament tears. Despite this increased use, very little data exist directly comparing acellular scaffolds and their native counterparts. Such a comparison would help establish the effectiveness of the acellularization procedure of human tissues. Furthermore, such a comparison would help estimate the influence of cells in ligament and tendon stability and give insight into the effects of acellularization on collagen. Material and Methods: Eighteen human iliotibial tract samples were obtained from nine body donors. Nine samples were acellularized with sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS), while nine counterparts from the same donors remained in the native condition. The ends of all samples were plastinated to minimize material slippage. Their water content was adjusted to 69%, using the osmotic stress technique to exclude water content-related alterations of the mechanical properties. Uniaxial tensile testing was performed to obtain the elastic modulus, ultimate stress and maximum strain. The effectiveness of the acellularization procedure was histologically verified by means of a DNA assay. Results: The histology samples showed a complete removal of the cells, an extensive, yet incomplete removal of the DNA content and alterations to the extracellular collagen. Tensile properties of the tract samples such as elastic modulus and ultimate stress were unaffected by acellularization with the exception of maximum strain. Discussion: The data indicate that cells influence the mechanical properties of ligaments and tendons in vitro to a negligible extent. Moreover, acellularization with SDS alters material properties to a minor extent, indicating that this method provides a biomechanical match in ligament and tendon reconstruction. However, the given protocol insufficiently removes DNA. This may increase the potential for transplant rejection when acellular tract scaffolds are used in soft tissue repair. Further research will help optimize the SDS-protocol for clinical application.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the static and dynamic architecture of supraspinatus throughout its volume in the normal and pathological state. The architecture was first investigated in cadaveric specimens free of any tendon pathology. Using a serial dissection and digitization method tailored for supraspinatus, the musculotendinous architecture was modeled in situ. The 3D model reconstructed in Autodesk MayaTM allowed for visualization and quantification of the fiber bundle architecture i.e. fiber bundle length (FBL), pennation angle (PA), muscle volume (MV) and tendon dimensions. Based on attachment sites and architectural parameters, the supraspinatus was found to have two architecturally distinct regions, anterior and posterior, each with three subdivisions. The findings from the cadaveric investigation served as a map and platform for the development of an ultrasound (US) protocol that allowed for the dynamic fiber bundle architecture to be quantified in vivo in normal subjects and subjects with a full-thickness supraspinatus tendon tear. The architecture was studied in the relaxed state and in three contracted states (60º abduction with either neutral rotation, 80º external rotation, or 80º internal rotation). The dynamic changes in the architecture within the distinct regions of the muscle were not uniform and varied as a function of joint position. Mean FBL in the anterior region shortened significantly with contraction (p<0.05) but not in the posterior. In the anterior region, mean PA was significantly smaller in the middle part compared to the deep (p<0.05). Comparison of the normal and pathological muscle found large differences in the percentage change of FBL and PA with contraction. The architectural parameter that showed the largest changes with tendon pathology was PA. In sum, the results showed that the static and dynamic fiber bundle architecture of supraspinatus is heterogeneous throughout the muscle volume and may influence tendon stresses. The architectural data collected in this study and the 3D muscle model can be used to develop future contractile models. The US protocol may serve as an assessment tool to predict the functional outcome of rehabilitative exercises and surgery.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Stockholm : Karol. inst., 2004. / Härtill 6 uppsatser.

The healing process of ruptured tendons is problematic due to scar tissue formation and deteriorated material properties. In some cases, it may take nearly a year to complete. Mechanical loading has been shown to positively influence tendon healing; however, the mechanisms remain unclear. Computational mechanobiology methods employed extensively to model bone healing have achieved high fidelity, but not yet been explored to understand tendon regeneration. The general objective of this thesis is to develop computational approaches to enhance the knowledge of the role that mechanical factors play in fibre re-organisation in healing tendons, by proposing an appropriate constitutive formulation, followed by analysing the mechano-adaptation of the models created when regulated by different biophysical stimuli. Curve fitting of an established hyperelastic fibre-reinforced continuum model introduced by Gasser, Ogden and Holzapfel (GOH) against experimental tensile testing data of rat Achilles tendons at four timepoints during the tendon repair was used and achieved excellent fits (0.9903 &LT; R² &LT; 0.9986). A parametric sensitivity study using a three-level central composite design, which is a fractional factorial design method, showed that the collagen-fibre-related parameters in the GOH model had almost equal influence on the fitting. The mechano-adaptation of the healing tendons when regulated by axial and principal strain predicted fibre re-organisation comparable to experimental findings, in contrast to models regulated by deviatoric strain. Also, mechano-adaptive models regulated by deviatoric strain were more spatially and temporally sensitive to different boundary conditions - length and loading magnitudes - than those regulated by axial and principal strain. This thesis describes that a hyperelastic fibre-reinforced mechano-adaptive model regulated by axial or principal strain is generally capable of describing the mechanobiological behaviours of healing tendons, and that further experiments should focus on establishing the localised structural and material parameters of collagen fibres and their mechano-adaptive behaviours in the healing tissue.

A cadência de pedalada é um importante componente na produção de potência, sendo responsável pelas mudanças na velocidade de encurtamento muscular, a qual influencia diretamente o desempenho no ciclismo. Ainda não está claro se a redução na ativação muscular e o menor torque no pedivela estão associados com a redução na contribuição dos tecidos ativos e/ou passivos em diferentes velocidades de pedalada. O objetivo da presente dissertação foi investigar o efeito de diferentes cadências de pedalada (70 e 90 rpm) sobre a arquitetura muscular do vasto lateral (VL) e comprimento da unidade músculo-tendão (UMT). Além de dados adicionais, da unidade músculo-tendão, força e a atividade elétrica dos músculos vasto medial, reto femoral e bíceps femoral, do torque muscular, força, ângulo do joelho, assim como a força resultante no pedal durante a pedalada. A amostra foi composta por 19 atletas (11 ciclistas e 8 triatletas) experientes em ciclismo. As características dos atletas avaliados foram (média±DP): 29 ± 7,4 anos de idade, 72 ± 8,3 kg de massa corporal, 178 ± 8,9 cm de altura, 382 ± 62 km por semana de treinamento de ciclismo, POMAX = 381 ± 37 W da potência máxima aeróbica e 62 ± 6 ml/kg/min de consumo máximo de oxigênio. Os atletas realizaram um teste preliminar para determinação da potência máxima aeróbica durante carga máxima de trabalho, enquanto no segundo teste eles pedalaram na potência referente ao segundo limiar ventilatório (POLV2 = 324±37 W) a 90 e 70 rpm em ordem randomizada por sorteio. A força aplicada no pedal direito, a ativação muscular do membro inferior, a cinemática da articulação do joelho e a arquitetura muscular foram coletadas durante os últimos 20 segundos de cada teste. Esses dados foram utilizados em um modelo biomecânico para verificação da variação do comprimento da unidade músculo-tendão nas respectivas cadências. Comparações estatísticas foram realizadas utilizando testes t de Student entre as duas cadências (70 e 90 rpm) para todas as variáveis do estudo, assumindo uma diferença significativa quando p≤0,05. Para o teste utilizamos o software SPSS 17.0 para Windows. Foi observada uma diminuição significativa no torque extensor do joelho (70 rpm = 108±13% vs. 90 rpm = 97±13%; p<0,01), na força resultante no pedal (70 rpm = 107±11% vs. 90 rpm = 94±7%; p<0,01) e na força do quadríceps (70 rpm = 107±17% vs. 90 rpm = 98±13%; p<0,01) na cadência de 90 rpm comparado a cadência de 70 rpm. Foram observadas ainda similaridade para o ângulo do joelho entre as cadências (100±20% em 70 rpm vs. 99±6% em 90 rpm; p=0,92), e similaridade na espessura do músculo vasto lateral (70 rpm = 101±5%, 90 rpm = 99±6%; p=0,14), enquanto o comprimento do fascículo (70 rpm = 74±33%, 90 rpm = 86±35%; p=0,01) aumentou e o ângulo de penação diminuiu da cadência de 70 para a de 90 rpm (70 rpm = 115±45%, 90 rpm = 96±34%; p<0,01). O comprimento da UMT do quadríceps (70 rpm = 99±2%, 90 rpm = 100±2%; p≤0,05) e o comprimento da UMT do vasto lateral (70 rpm = 98±4%, 90 rpm = 100±4%; p=0,02) apresentaram um aumento na cadência de 70 para a cadência de 90 rpm. Para os músculos reto femoral (70 rpm = 100±1%, 90 rpm = 100±1%; p=0,08) e bíceps femoral (70 rpm = 100±1%, 90 rpm = 100±1%; p=0,16) não houveram diferenças significativas para o comprimento da UMT. A ativação muscular do vasto medial em 90 rpm apresentou um diminuição comparada à cadência de 70 rpm (70 rpm = 114±34% vs. 90 rpm = 83±19%; p≤0,05), enquanto a ativação dos músculos bíceps femoral e reto femoral não apresentaram diferença significativa entre as cadências. Em conclusão, a mudança na cadência de pedalada de 70 para 90 rpm em carga constante de trabalho reduz a produção de força dos extensores do joelho à 90 rpm, provavelmente decorrente de uma menor ativação do vasto medial e de um trabalho do fascículo em um maior comprimento e em um menor ângulo de penação do vasto lateral nessa cadência mais elevada. / Cycling cadence is an important component in power production, where changes muscle shortening velocity can affect cycling performance. It is not yet clear if the reduction in muscle activation and the lower crank torque are associated with decreases in contribution from active and/or passive tissues in different cycling cadences. The propose of this master thesis was to investigated the influence of two cycling cadences (70 and 90 rpm) on muscle architecture of the vastus lateralis and muscle-tendon unit length. As well, addictional data was analyzed as muscle-tendon unit, force, and the muscle activation of vastus medialis, rectus femoris and biceps femoris, muscular torque, force, knee angle and resultant force during pedaling. Nineteen athletes (11 cyclists and 8 triathletes) experienced in cycling have taken part in this study. The characteristics of cyclists/triathletes were(mean ±SD): 29 ±7.4 years of age, 72 ±8.3 kg of body mass, 178 ±8.9 cm of height, 382 ±62 km per week of cycling training, 381 ±37 W of maximal aerobic power output, and 62 ±6 ml/kg/min of maximal oxygen uptake. The athletes performed an incremental cycling test to determinate their maximal workload. In a second they pedalled in their maximal workload and at the workload of their second ventilatory threshold (POVT2 = 324±37 W) at 90 and 70 rpm in random order. The force applied to the right pedal, lower limb muscles’ activation, lower limb kinematics and the ultrasound images from vastus lateralis were collected during the last 20 seconds of each test. This data was used in a biomechanical model to assess the influence of muscle-tendon unit in the two cadences. Student t tests were used to compare effects from pedalling cadences (70 and 90 rpm) in this study, assuming a significant difference when p≤0.05 using a statistical package (SPSS 17.0 for windows). A significant decrease in knee extensor torque (70 rpm = 108±13% vs. 90 rpm = 97±13%; p<0.01), in crank torque (70 rpm = 107±11% vs. 90 rpm = 94±7%; p<0.01) and in quadriceps force (70 rpm = 107±17% vs. 90 rpm = 98±13%; p<0.01) were found at 90 rpm compared to 70 rpm. No differences were found for the knee angle between cadences (100±20% at 70 rpm vs. 99±6% at 90 rpm; p=0.92). Muscle thickness was not significantly different between cadences (70 rpm = 101±5%, 90 rpm = 99±6%; p=0.14), however the fascicle length significantly increased (70 rpm = 74±33%, 90 rpm = 86±35%; p=0.01) and pennation angle decreased (70 rpm = 115±45%, 90 rpm = 96±34%; p<0.01) from 70 rpm to 90 rpm. Muscle-tendon unit length of quadriceps showed a significant increase (70 rpm = 99±2%, 90 rpm = 100±2%; p≤0.05) followed by a significant increase in muscle-tendon unit length of vastus lateralis (70 rpm = 98±4%, 90 rpm = 100±4%; p=0.02) from 70 rpm to 90 rpm. Rectus femoris (70 rpm = 100±1%, 90 rpm = 100±1%; p=0.08) and biceps femoris (70 rpm = 100±1%, 90 rpm = 100±1%; p=0.16) did not differ between the two cadences. Muscle activation of vastus medialis at 90 rpm showed a decrease compare to70 rpm (70 rpm = 114±34% vs. 90 rpm = 83±19%; p≤0.05), whistle biceps femoris and rectus femoris muscle did not differ between the two cadences. In conclusion, changes in cycling cadence from 70 rpm to 90 rpm at constant workload reduced force production at 90 rpm, resulting in a lower activation of the vastus medialis while fascicles worked at longer lengths and at smaller pennation angles.