A remodelação óssea pode ser estimulada por forças mecânicas presentes nas atividades físicas normais. Mas, a diminuição dos estímulos mecânicos, observada em vôos espaciais (exposição dos astronautas ao ambiente de microgravidade), nas imobilizações ortopédicas e na permanência prolongada de pacientes no leito, pode causar danos significativos na estrutura óssea. Neste caso, aumenta o risco de fraturas, não durante o período de sub-carregamento, mas no retorno às atividades físicas normais. A contra medida mais estudada para evitar danos ou promover a recuperação da estrutura óssea, é o exercício físico. Portanto, um dos objetivos desta pesquisa surgiu do interesse em analisar mecanicamente e microscopicamente fêmures de ratos submetidos à hipocinesia e posterior treinamento em esteira. Outro objetivo surgiu da necessidade de desenvolver metodologias mais precisas de análises mecânicas em ossos longos de ratos. Foram utilizadas 66 ratas da raça Wistar. Os animais foram criados até a idade de 90 dias, para o início dos procedimentos experimentais. Eles foram divididos em cinco grupos, sendo dois controles e três experimentais. Os animais do grupo Cont I foram criados até completarem 118 dias de idade e serviu de controle para o grupo S (suspenso), que consistiu em suspender os animais pela cauda por 28 dias. Já no grupo Cont II os animais foram criados até 139 dias e foi o controle para os grupos S-L (suspenso e liberado) e S-T (suspenso e treinado). No grupo S-L os animais foram liberados por 21 dias, após o período de suspensão pela cauda. No grupo S-T os animais passaram por um protocolo de treinamento em esteira por 21 dias após a suspensão pela cauda. Foram analisadas algumas propriedades mecânicas do terço proximal do fêmur esquerdo e da diáfise do fêmur direito. Outra análise realizada foi a microscópica, por meio de fluorescência óssea da região do terço proximal do fêmur direito e da região da diáfise do fêmur esquerdo. A suspensão pela cauda provocou diminuição das propriedades mecânicas do terço proximal do fêmur dos animais, apesar de não apresentar diferença visível na análise microscópica. A liberação após a suspensão causou alterações no núcleo de ossificação, na esfericidade da cabeça e na placa de crescimento do terço proximal do fêmur, sem alterar o comportamento mecânico desta região. E o treinamento conservou o núcleo de ossificação e a esfericidade da cabeça após a suspensão, e também, não alterou o comportamento mecânico. A ossificação periosteal na diáfise do fêmur dos animais suspensos diminuiu, no grupo S-L foi mais acentuada no endósteo e, no grupo S-T o treinamento promoveu a recuperação do balanço osteogênico. A liberação promoveu a recuperação parcial do comportamento mecânico do osso cortical da diáfise do fêmur do rato e, o treinamento recuperou as propriedades e estimulou a formação de osso novo. / Bone remodeling can be stimulated by the mechanical solicitation from normal physical activities. Consequently, decreasing of mechanical stimuli as occurring during spatial flights, prolonged bed rest and orthopedic immobilization may cause significant weakening of the bone structure. In such cases there is an increased risk of fractures when the normal physical activities are resumed. Physical exercises are a way to try to strengthen the bone structure. Therefore, in the present research we investigated the mechanical behavior and microscopy analysis of long bones from rats that were previously maintained in tail suspension and later, submitted to physical exercise in a treadmill. An additional aim came up from the necessity to develop more precise technologies that mechanical testing in long bones of rats. Sixty-six Wistar rats were used. Firstly, the animals were raised until the age of ninety days and the divided into five groups (two controls and three experimental). The animals allocated to control I were killed at 118 days of age. In the groups S, the animals were tail suspended during 28 days. In the control group II the animals were killed at 139 days of age. In group S-R (suspended and released) the rats were keep free for 21 days after the tail suspension. In group S-T (suspended and trained) after the tail suspension period the rats were trained in treadmill during 21 days. The mechanical properties of the whole proximal third of the femur were analyzed in flexion-compression on one side and from the opposite side femur bone samples were harnested for three-point bending tests. Furthermore, the osteogeneses in different groups were studied at the mid-diaphysis of the femur and at the proximal femoral epiphysis with oxitetracycline. The suspension caused a decrease of the mechanical properties of the proximal femur. Resuming free activities in cage after the suspension period caused flattening of the femoral head and earlier closure of the growth plate, but no difference of the mechanical behavior was detected. Conversely, the treadmill training caused no alteration in the femoral head shape, but the mechanical properties did not change. The fluorescence studies showed that there was a decrease of the osteogenic activity at the subperiosteal level in suspended animals, but for suspended-released rats the diminished activity occurred at the endosteal level. The treadmill training caused recovering of the osteogenic balance. The post-suspension released in cage promoted partial recovery of the mechanical properties of the diaphyseal bone and the treadmill training besides recovering the normal mechanical properties did stimulate the new-bone formation.

Neste trabalho estudou-se as propriedades ópticas do complexo Európio- Tetraciclina (EuTc), determinando as melhores condições para se obter uma formação eficiente do complexo. Parâmetros ópticos como absorção, emissão, tempo de vida e índice de refração foram obtidos. Variação da concentração de európio no complexo, da temperatura, pH ótimo e tempo de reação das soluções foram analisados. Um aumento na banda de emissão do európio foi observado com adição de peróxido de hidrogênio (HP) na solução. As amostras foram preparadas com pH neutro e a luminescência visível do lantanídeo foi detectada após uma incubação das amostras por 30 min. Um método direto para determinação de peróxido de uréia (PHU) e colesterol, em solução, usando a fluorescência do complexo EuTc é descrito. Os resultados mostram que o complexo é ainda mais sensível para o peróxido de uréia, aumentando a intensidade de emissão em até 40 vezes, do que para o peróxido de hidrogênio, que proporciona um aumento máximo de 15 vezes, quando comparados ao EuTc puro. É reportado também, pela primeira vez, que para a determinação do colesterol total, utilizando-se a sonda EuTc, não há necessidade de adição de enzima na solução, além de ser capaz de detectar frações de colesterol (LDL, VLDL e HDL), também sem adição de outros reagentes. Esse método mostra que o complexo pode ser usado como biossensor de alta sensibilidade, boa precisão, resposta rápida, baixo custo e resultados reprodutíveis para a determinação direta do peróxido de hidrogênio, do peróxido de uréia, de colesterol e LDL e para a determinação indireta da glicose. Uma proposta para a construção de um protótipo de equipamento para medidas de emissão do európio, miniaturizado, portátil, e de baixo custo, que possa ser utilizado com maior facilidade e rapidez, é apresentado. / In this work was studied the optical properties of Europium-Tetracycline complex (EuTc), determining the best conditions to obtain an efficient complex formation. Optical parameters as absorption, emission, lifetime and refractive index were obtained. Variation of europium complexes concentration, temperature, optimal pH and solutions time reaction were analyzed. An increase in the europium emission band was observed with the addition of hydrogen peroxide (HP) in the solution. The samples were prepared with neutral pH and the lanthanide visible luminescence was detected after a samples incubation of 30 min. A direct method to determine urea hydrogen peroxide (PHU) and cholesterol, in solution, using a fluorescent EuTc complex is described. The results show that the complex is more sensitive for urea hydrogen peroxide, it is over fortyfold higher, while for hydrogen peroxide the increasing is fifteenfold higher when compared to pure EuTc complex emission intensity. It is also reported, for the first time, for the determination of cholesterol total, using the EuTc probe, the enzymatic reaction is not necessary, and also is possible to detect cholesterol fractions (LDL, VLDL and HDL), without the addition of other reagents. This method shows that the complex can be used as a biossensor of high sensibility, good accuracy, fast response, low cost and reproducible results to direct determination of hydrogen peroxide, urea hydrogen peroxide, cholesterol and LDL, and to indirect determination of glucose. A prototype for the construction of miniaturized equipment, portable, low cost, easier and faster to be used, is presented.

Neste trabalho estudou-se as propriedades ópticas do complexo Európio- Tetraciclina (EuTc), determinando as melhores condições para se obter uma formação eficiente do complexo. Parâmetros ópticos como absorção, emissão, tempo de vida e índice de refração foram obtidos. Variação da concentração de európio no complexo, da temperatura, pH ótimo e tempo de reação das soluções foram analisados. Um aumento na banda de emissão do európio foi observado com adição de peróxido de hidrogênio (HP) na solução. As amostras foram preparadas com pH neutro e a luminescência visível do lantanídeo foi detectada após uma incubação das amostras por 30 min. Um método direto para determinação de peróxido de uréia (PHU) e colesterol, em solução, usando a fluorescência do complexo EuTc é descrito. Os resultados mostram que o complexo é ainda mais sensível para o peróxido de uréia, aumentando a intensidade de emissão em até 40 vezes, do que para o peróxido de hidrogênio, que proporciona um aumento máximo de 15 vezes, quando comparados ao EuTc puro. É reportado também, pela primeira vez, que para a determinação do colesterol total, utilizando-se a sonda EuTc, não há necessidade de adição de enzima na solução, além de ser capaz de detectar frações de colesterol (LDL, VLDL e HDL), também sem adição de outros reagentes. Esse método mostra que o complexo pode ser usado como biossensor de alta sensibilidade, boa precisão, resposta rápida, baixo custo e resultados reprodutíveis para a determinação direta do peróxido de hidrogênio, do peróxido de uréia, de colesterol e LDL e para a determinação indireta da glicose. Uma proposta para a construção de um protótipo de equipamento para medidas de emissão do európio, miniaturizado, portátil, e de baixo custo, que possa ser utilizado com maior facilidade e rapidez, é apresentado. / In this work was studied the optical properties of Europium-Tetracycline complex (EuTc), determining the best conditions to obtain an efficient complex formation. Optical parameters as absorption, emission, lifetime and refractive index were obtained. Variation of europium complexes concentration, temperature, optimal pH and solutions time reaction were analyzed. An increase in the europium emission band was observed with the addition of hydrogen peroxide (HP) in the solution. The samples were prepared with neutral pH and the lanthanide visible luminescence was detected after a samples incubation of 30 min. A direct method to determine urea hydrogen peroxide (PHU) and cholesterol, in solution, using a fluorescent EuTc complex is described. The results show that the complex is more sensitive for urea hydrogen peroxide, it is over fortyfold higher, while for hydrogen peroxide the increasing is fifteenfold higher when compared to pure EuTc complex emission intensity. It is also reported, for the first time, for the determination of cholesterol total, using the EuTc probe, the enzymatic reaction is not necessary, and also is possible to detect cholesterol fractions (LDL, VLDL and HDL), without the addition of other reagents. This method shows that the complex can be used as a biossensor of high sensibility, good accuracy, fast response, low cost and reproducible results to direct determination of hydrogen peroxide, urea hydrogen peroxide, cholesterol and LDL, and to indirect determination of glucose. A prototype for the construction of miniaturized equipment, portable, low cost, easier and faster to be used, is presented.

Abstract not available

A large part of the antibiotics consumed ends up in wastewater, and in the wastewater the antibiotics may exert selective pressure for or maintain resistance among microorganisms. Antibiotic resistant bacteria and genes encoding antibiotic resistance are commonly detected in wastewater, often at higher rates and concentrations compared to surface water. Wastewater can also provide favourable conditions for the growth of a diverse bacterial community, which constitutes a basis for the selection and spread of antibiotic resistance. Therefore, wastewater treatment plants have been suggested to play a role in the dissemination and development of antibiotic resistant bacteria. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a large problem worldwide as a nosocomial pathogen, but knowledge is limited about occurrence in non-clinical environments, such as wastewater, and what role wastewater plays in dissemination and development of MRSA.   In this thesis we investigated the occurrence of MRSA in a full-scale wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). We also investigated the concentration of genes encoding resistance to aminoglycosides (aac(6’)-Ie+aph(2’’)), β-lactam antibiotics (mecA) and tetracyclines (tetA and tetB) in three wastewater-associated environments: (1) soil from an overland flow area treating landfill leachates, (2) biofilm from a municipal wastewater treatment plant, and (3) sludge from a hospital wastewater pipeline. In addition, concentrations of mecA, tetA and tetB were investigated over the treatment process in the WWTP. These investigations were performed to determine how the prevalence and concentration of MRSA and the antibiotic resistence genes are affected in wastewater and wastewater treatment processes over time. The occurrence of MRSA was investigated by cultivation and a commercially available real-time PCR assay. In order to determine concentrations of the genes aac(6’)-Ie+aph(2’’), mecA, tetA and tetB in wastewater we developed a LUXTM real-time PCR assay for each gene.   Using cultivation and real-time PCR we could for the first time describe the occurrence of MRSA in wastewater and show that it had a stable occurrence over time in a WWTP. MRSA could mainly be detected in the early treatment steps in the WWTP, and the wastewater treatment process reduced the number and diversity of cultivated MRSA. However, our results also indicate that the treatment process selects for strains with more extensive resistance and possibly higher virulence. The isolated wastewater MRSA strains were shown to have a close genetic relationship to clinical isolates, and no specific wastewater lineages could be detected, indicating that they are a reflection of carriage in the community. Taken together, these data indicate that wastewater may be a potential reservoir for MRSA and that MRSA are more prevalent in wastewater than was previously thought.   The real-time PCR assays, for aac(6’)-Ie+aph(2’’), mecA, tetA, and tetB that we developed, were shown to be sensitive, fast, and reproducible methods for detection and quantification of these genes in wastewater environments. The highest concentrations of all genes were observed in the hospital pipeline, and the lowest in the overland flow system, with tetA and aac(6´)-Ie+aph(2´´) detected in all three environments. In the full-scale WWTP, we continuously detected mecA, tetA and tetB over the treatment process and over time. In addition, it was shown that the treatment process reduces concentrations of all three genes. The data presented in this thesis also indicate that the reduction for all three genes may be connected to the removal of biomass, and in the reduction of tetA and tetB, sedimentation and precipitation appear to play an important role.

Autoinducer 2 (AI-2) is a quorum sensing signal employed by bacteria to coordinate their response to environmental stresses. The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between presence of AI-2 molecules, exposure to sub-therapeutic tetracycline, the expression of genes associated with the conjugal transfer of antibiotic resistance plasmids, and the conjugal transfer of these plasmids in Escherichia coli. The studies showed that AI-2 activity increased in Tets E. coli in the presence of tetracycline (2 µg/mL) under both batch and continuous culture conditions. The presence of AI-2 molecules induced tetracycline tolerance development in Tets E. coli. The studies showed that the survival rates of Tets E. coli exposed to AI-2 molecules were significantly higher compared to the cells not exposed to AI-2 molecules or cells that were exposed to only LB (Lauria-Bertani) broth. Molecular analyses using real-time PCR indicate that the expression of at least one conjugation-associated gene (trbC) is increased 9-fold in cells exposed to AI-2 molecules in the presence of sub-therapeutic tetracycline compared to its negative controls. The transconjugation frequency of the plasmid RP4 carrying the tet(A) gene increased between 10-100 fold in the presence of AI-2 molecules. In companion studies, AI-2-like activity was detected in fish, tomatoes, cantaloupes, carrots and milk samples. Interestingly, ground beef and poultry meat contained substances that appear to inhibit AI-2 activity. Collectively, these results highlight the potential importance of bacterial quorum sensing signals such as AI-2 in the response of bacterial cells to environmental stimuli and the possible role of quorum sensing signals in the quality and safety of foods.

Lo scopo di questo lavoro di tesi era di stabilire la frequenza di lattobacilli resistenti all’eritromicina e alla tetraciclina sia nel prodotto finito che nella filiera di produzione di un salame DOP del Nord Italia. Il controllo della filiera produttiva comprendeva la pelle, la carne macinata e le feci di otto suini mentre il prodotto finito era analizzato a 0, 21, 35 e 45 giorni di stagionatura. Sono state isolate colonie di lattobacilli da terreni di coltura selettivi addizionati di antibiotici. Le specie antibiotico resistenti più frequentemente isolate erano Lactobacillus sakei, Lactobacillus curvatus and Lactobacillus plantarum. I geni che con maggior frequenza sono stati evidenziati nei ceppi isolati dalla filiera e nel prodotto finito erano tet(M) ed erm(B) mentre tet(W) ed erm(B) lo erano per i ceppi isolati dalle feci. Questo studio ha consentito di fornire dati circa la presenza e la diffusione di lattobacilli tetraciclina ed eritromicina resistenti in un salame tipico del Nord Italia. I lattobacilli antibiotico resistenti potrebbero trasferire ad altri batteri, patogeni o non patogeni, i geni responsabili della resistenza stessa. Alla luce di tutto questo l’80% dei salami analizzati possono essere considerati sicuri da questo punto di vista mentre il 20% può essere valutato come un prodotto a rischio anche se la situazione non è ancora preoccupante. / The scope of this study was to assess the frequency of erythromycin and tetracycline resistant lactobacilli in the production chain (skin, minced meat, and stools of eight swine, the natural casing, and the final product at days 0, 21, 35, and 45 of ripening) of a Protected Designation of Origin dry sausage from the North of Italy and in the end products. We isolated colonies of lactobacilli from selective medium supplemented with erythromycin or tetracycline and the most frequently antibiotic resistant species isolated were Lactobacillus sakei, Lactobacillus curvatus and Lactobacillus plantarum The most frequent resistance genes in process line strains were tet(M) and erm(B) while tet(W) and erm(B) were common in strains isolated from swine stools. This study provides evidence of the presence of tetracycline and, to a lesser extent, erythromycin resistant lactobacilli in fermented dry sausages produced in Northern Italy. Although these antibiotic resistant lactobacilli could serve as reservoir organisms, in our study 80% of salami could be considered as safe even though 20% could represent a border line situation regarding the possibility of transferring antibiotic resistant genes to pathogens.

Le vétérinaire aide le producteur laitier à garder son troupeau en santé. Lorsqu’une vache est malade, il peut prescrire des antibiotiques. Le cas échéant, le lait de la vache traitée aux antibiotiques est jeté. Il n’est donc pas vendu pour consommation. Tout le lait produit est analysé avant d’être pasteurisé et transformé afin de s’assurer que les produits laitiers ne contiennent pas de résidus d’antibiotiques. Si les analyses indiquent que le lait renferme des traces d’antibiotiques, il est jeté et le producteur en cause doit assumer la perte. Les épreuves de dépistage actuelles de ces résidus médicamenteux sont onéreuses et inapplicables sur le terrain. Pour résoudre cette problématique aux pieds de la vache, la solution proposée dans ce projet est la fabrication d’un kit de détection basé sur les polymères à empreinte moléculaire. Il s’agit de polymères dont la conformation moléculaire est complémentaire à celle des antibiotiques. Dans ce projet, il est question d’améliorer l’efficacité des épreuves de dépistages des résidus de tétracyclines en augmentant le nombre de sites d’interaction entre l’antibiotique et des polyesters. Trois polymères sont utilisés portant respectivement des groupements aromatiques, carboxyliques et hydroxyles. Une étude antérieure dans notre laboratoire avait déjà donné un pourcentage de rétention de tétracycline de 50% pour une composition de 1/3 PLAOH- 1/3 PLACOOH- 1/3 PLAOBn. Avec des ajustements, le pourcentage passe à 38.93 % pour une composition de 1/4 PLAOH- 1/2 PLACOOH- 1/4 PLAOPh, de 44.81 % pour une composition de 1/4 PLACOOH- 1/2 PLAOH- 1/4 PLAOPh, de 66.34 %pour une composition de 1/4 PLAOH- 1/4 PLACOOH- 1/2 PLAOPh et de 78.07 % pour une composition de 1/6 PLAOH- 1/6 PLACOOH- 2/3 PLAOPh. Notre hypothèse était que la présence accrue du groupement phényle augmenterait le nombre de sites d’interaction spécifique avec l’antibiotique augmentant ainsi le pourcentage de rétention de l’antibiotique à travers les MIP. Les résultats ont confirmé cette hypothèse. / The veterinarian is helping the dairy farmer to keep his flock healthy. When a cow is sick, he may prescribe antibiotics. But in that case, the cow milk treated with antibiotics is discarded, and not sold for consumption. All milk products are analyzed before being pasteurized and processed to ensure that dairy products do not contain residues of antibiotics. If the analyses show that milk contains traces of antibiotics, it is discarded and the producer must bear the loss. On place, the current screening tests for drug residues are expensive and inapplicable. To resolve this problem at the feet of the cow, the solution proposed in this project is the production of a detection kit based on molecular imprinted polymers. These are polymers whose molecular conformation is complementary to that of antibiotics. This project is about improving the effectiveness of screening tests for residues of tetracyclines by increasing the number of interaction sites between the antibiotic and polyester. Three polymers are used respectively, aromatic, carboxyl and hydroxyl groups. A previous study in our laboratory had already shown a tetracycline retention percentage of 50% for a composition of 1 / 3 PLAOH-1 / 3 PLACOOH-1 / 3 PLAOBn. After variation in the polymers ratio, the percentage obtained is, 38.93 % for a composition of 1 / 4 PLAOH-1 / 2 PLACOOH-1 / 4 PLAOPh, 44.81 % for a composition of 1 / 4 PLACOOH- 1 / 2 PLAOH- 1 / 4 PLAOPh, 66.34 % for a composition of 1/4 PLAOH- 1/4 PLACOOH- 1/4 PLAOPh and 78.07 % for a composition of 1/6 PLAOH- 1 / 6 PLACOOH- 2 / 3 PLAPh. Our hypothesis was that the increase of the amount of the phenyl group, increases the number of specific interaction sites with the antibiotic, and so increases the percentage of retention of the antibiotic through the MIP. The results confirmed this hypothesis.

The use of reporter gene fusions to assess cellular processes such as protein targeting and regulation of transcription or translation is established technology in archaeal, bacterial, and eukaryal genetics. Fluorescent proteins or enzymes resulting in chromogenic substrate turnover, like β-galactosidase, have been particularly useful for microscopic and screening purposes. However, application of such methodology is of limited use for strictly anaerobic organisms due to the requirement of molecular oxygen for chromophore formation or color development. We have developed β-lactamase from Escherichia coli (encoded by bla) in conjunction with the chromogenic substrate nitrocefin into a reporter system usable under anaerobic conditions for the methanogenic archaeon Methanosarcina acetivorans. By using a signal peptide of a putative flagellin from M. acetivorans and different catabolic promoters, we could demonstrate growth substrate-dependent secretion of β-lactamase, facilitating its use in colony screening on agar plates. Furthermore, a series of fusions comprised of a constitutive promoter and sequences encoding variants of the synthetic tetracycline-responsive riboswitch (tc-RS) was created to characterize its influence on translation initiation in M. acetivorans. One tc-RS variant resulted in more than 11-fold tetracycline-dependent regulation of bla expression, which is in the range of regulation by naturally occurring riboswitches. Thus, tc-RS fusions represent the first solely cis-active, that is, factor-independent system for controlled gene expression in Archaea.

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the anterior hypothalamus has long been considered a master circadian pacemaker that drives rhythms in physiology and behavior in mammals. The recent discovery of self-sustained and cell-autonomous circadian oscillators in peripheral tissues has challenged this position. This dissertation tested the general hypothesis that the SCN has properties that distinguish it from other oscillators, thereby positioning it atop a circadian hierarchy. The general approach was to compare the consequences of altering the molecular circadian clock on tissue-autonomous rhythmicity in mice. In the first experiments, the role of the SCN as a master clock was tested by manipulating the expression of a circadian gene in the brain. Specifically, the expression of the short period tau mutation of casein kinase-1-epsilon (CK1ε) was controlled in an anatomically- and a temporally-specific manner via a tetracycline transactivator regulatory system. This inducible expression of CK1εtau affected the period of activity rhythms when expressed in the SCN, but did not affect the tissue-autonomous rhythmic properties in the peripheral tissues. Second, real-time bioluminescence imaging of tissues from PER2::LUCIFERASE mice revealed that period and phase of different circadian oscillators were tissue specific. Various circadian gene mutations (Cry1-/-, Cry2-/-, Cry1-/-;Cry2-/-, Clock∆19/∆19) produced little difference in rhythmic properties between the SCN and peripheral oscillators, although Cry1-/- SCN had more robust and persistent rhythms compared with the periphery. Third, the loss of Bmal1, which produces behavioral arrhythmicity, eliminated rhythms in the peripheral tissues, but not in the SCN. Bmal1-/- SCN rhythms were highly variable in period and amplitude, fitting a stochastic, but not a deterministic model of rhythm generation. Unlike mutations in other circadian genes, rhythmicity was completely abolished in single SCN neurons in Bmal1-/- mice, indicating that rhythms in Bmal1-/- SCN tissue are a property of the tissue organization rather than an averaging of single-cell autonomous rhythms. The SCN, therefore, has a unique anatomical organization that contributes to long-term stability and temporal organization of the circadian hierarchy.