A inovação é um fator crítico para o sucesso das empresas. A indústria farmacêutica é historicamente movida pela inovação. Entretanto, neste ramo, o desenvolvimento de novos produtos envolve custos elevados e um longo ciclo de desenvolvimento de produto acarretando em um alto risco de negócio. Recentemente, a estratégia de inovação aberta (open innovation) surgiu com alternativa às empresas para inovação sugerindo que as empresas mantenham-se abertas a idéias internas e externas, tornando o processo de inovação mais ágil, econômico e seguro, uma vez que ele passa a ser compartilhado com outras partes. Porém, embora este novo paradigma se aplique ao ramo farmacêutico, há poucas pesquisas até o momento que estudem diretamente a estratégia de inovação aberta à indústria farmacêutica. Desta forma, este trabalho busca estudar de forma exploratória a prática da estratégia de inovação aberta por indústrias farmacêuticas brasileiras e compreender: os motivos que levaram as empresas nacionais a adotarem este modelo, como esta prática está estruturada dentro destas indústrias e de que maneira elas trabalham com seus parceiros de inovação. A pesquisa comprovou que as indústrias farmacêuticas estão utilizando a inovação aberta como estratégia de inovação. Entretanto, o modelo de inovação aplicado possui adaptações, em razões de questões culturais e maturidade da empresa, de forma que o fluxo de idéias criativas ocorre somente na direção do ambiente externo para o interno da empresa. Entre os problemas relacionados à inovação aberta no Brasil, optou-se por investigar as relações entre os envolvidos como forma de encontrar oportunidades de melhoria para o modelo brasileiro que ainda se baseia muito na relação empresa-universidade. Dentre as empresas estudadas no estudo de caso indicou serem os principais stakeholder as universidades e institutos de pesquisa públicos e que estas parceiras se consolidam preferencialmente através de convênios de pesquisa. / In a highly competitive environment, innovation is a critical factor to the success and maintenance of any company. The pharmaceutical industry is historically moved by innovation in products. However, in the pharmaceutical business, the development of new products demands huge investments and a long development cycle which consequently increase the risk of the business associated to uncertainty. Recently, the open innovation strategy emerged as an alternative to companies to innovate and develop new products. This new paradigm suggests that companies must be opened to ideas from the internal and external environments and to perform co-development projects with the purpose of developing products faster, cheaper and in a less risky way. Although this new paradigm is adequate to the pharmaceutical segment, there are few researches that discuss the open innovation strategy in the pharmaceutical industry. Therefore, this research has the purpose to study the practice of open innovation strategy by Brazilian pharmaceutical companies and to access: the reasons that motivate the national companies to adopt this model, how this practice is structured inside the companies and how they work with their innovation partners. From this investigation it was possible to verify that the pharmaceutical industries in Brazil use open innovation as a strategy of innovation. However, the open innovation model characteristics in Brazil consider adaptations from the original model suggested by Chesbrough. For cultural and the companies’ business maturity level, it was noticed that the influx of creative ideas is mainly from the outside towards inside company. Additionally, it was investigated the relationship among the co-development stakeholders, as an opportunity to find improvements to the Brazilian open innovation model. The case study findings indicate that the most relevant partnership type is the consortium with the universities and research institutes.

Submitted by Joana Azevedo (joanad@id.uff.br) on 2017-08-10T18:51:26Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissert Flavio Medina.pdf: 2310413 bytes, checksum: dd66f36818bc8ed6637e9efb81ae1c5a (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Biblioteca da Escola de Engenharia (bee@ndc.uff.br) on 2017-09-04T13:35:48Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissert Flavio Medina.pdf: 2310413 bytes, checksum: dd66f36818bc8ed6637e9efb81ae1c5a (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-09-04T13:35:48Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissert Flavio Medina.pdf: 2310413 bytes, checksum: dd66f36818bc8ed6637e9efb81ae1c5a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-12-11 / A indústria farmacêutica é considerada uma grande geradora de resíduos, sendo motivo de diversas discussões quanto à necessidade de se buscar o desenvolvimento sustentável. As ações com o objetivo de melhorar esta situação podem acontecer nas várias etapas do processo de produção de medicamentos. Por este motivo, é fundamental estudar a relação entre a causa e o efeito na realização de atividades dentro das organizações que fabricam medicamentos, entre outras atividades que são realizadas dentro da operação. Imputa-se a isto, a necessidade de compreensão de fatores que levam ao tratamento da questão ambiental no processo produtivo, levando em consideração os resíduos que são gerados durante a produção e os resíduos do pós-consumo. O objetivo do presente estudo é analisar o manejo, tratamento e descarte dos resíduos gerados durante o processo produtivo dos medicamentos e dos medicamentos que não serão mais utilizados no laboratório farmacêutico de Farmanguinhos (FIOCRUZ), assim como as sobras de medicamentos geradas no pós-consumo. Para isso, foram referenciados os seguintes tópicos: meio-ambiente; sustentabilidade; responsabilidade social; produção mais limpa; cenários da indústria farmacêutica; gestão da cadeia produtiva e da cadeia de suprimentos na indústria farmacêutica; resíduos sólidos farmacêuticos. A pesquisa de campo foi realizada por meio da abordagem qualitativa no laboratório farmacêutico de Farmanguinhos, uma unidade da FIOCRUZ, através de pesquisa documental e visitas técnicas. Os dados foram tratados através da análise de conteúdo. Conclui-se que Farmanguinhos tem uma preocupação considerável com a sustentabilidade e com a responsabilidade social, tentando minimizar os impactos ambientais e realizando diversos projetos sociais. A Unidade possui um centro de Tratamentos de Efluentes (ETE) e um Centro de Tecnologia Ambiental (CTA), além de tratar seus resíduos sólidos de acordo com a Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos (PNRS), tendo como destinação final a incineração e aterros sanitários. Constatou-se que ainda não existe um sistema implementado para o recolhimento de medicamentos gerados no pós-consumo. / The pharmaceutical industry is considered a great generator of waste, and is the subject of several discussions about the need for sustainable development solutions. Actions to improve this situation may take place at the various stages of the drug production process. For this reason, it is fundamental to study the cause and effect relationship in performing activities within organizations that manufacture drugs, among other activities that are performed within the operation. This entails the need to understand the environmental issues related to the production process, taking into consideration the residues that are generated during production as well as post-consumption residues. The objective of the present study is to analyze the management, treatment, and disposal of residues generated during the drug production process and of drugs which will no longer be used in the Farmanguinhos pharmaceutical laboratory (FIOCRUZ), as well as the leftovers of medicines generated in post-consumption. For this, the following topics were referenced: environment; sustainability; social responsibility; cleaner production; scenarios of the pharmaceutical industry; Management of the supply chain and supply chain in the pharmaceutical industry; Solid pharmaceutical waste. Field research was carried out through a qualitative approach in the pharmaceutical laboratory of Farmanguinhos, a unit of FIOCRUZ, through documentary research and technical visits. Data were treated through content analysis. It is concluded that Farmanguinhos has a considerable concern with sustainability and social responsibility, attempting to minimize environmental impacts and carrying out various social projects. The Unit has an Effluent Treatment Center (ETE) and an Environmental Technology Center (CTA), in addition to treating its solid waste in accordance with the National Solid Waste Policy (PNRS), with the final destination of incineration and sanitary landfills. It was verified that, as of yet, there are no systems implemented for the collection of medicines generated in post-consumption.

I focused my dissertation on the marketing strategies used by Czech subsidiaries of international pharmaceutical firms. There were two main aims of my dissertation. Firstly, to characterize the nature of the pharmaceutical industry, differentiate it clearly from consumer goods industries and identify how these differences influence the marketing strategy used. To reach this goal I used desk research. Secondly, I carried out primary research among 46 large international pharmaceutical firms that run subsidiaries in the Czech Republic. The main aims were to find out what marketing strategy they use (global, modified global, regional, local, or a combination of these), how and where it is created, how it is financed, whether they prefer the promotion of the company name or of individual brands and what communication channels they use.

The aim of this thesis is to present the theoretical attributes of marketing communications, as part of the marketing mix and in particular in relation to specific areas of the pharmaceutical industry. The practical part is focused on pharmaceutical product marketing communication towards the ultimate consumer. For this goal I chose Green pharmaceutical company - Swan Pharmaceuticals CR, as a nutritional supplement for her joints Condro Forte GS.

Radiofármacos são preparações farmacêuticas que possuem um radionuclídeo em sua composição. Cerca de 95% deles são utilizados com finalidade diagnóstica e em sua maioria são administrados por via parenteral, requerendo o uso de água purificada (AP) e para injeção (API) nos processos de produção, controle de qualidade e pesquisa de novos radiofármacos. A produção de radiofármacos no Brasil deve atender às Boas Práticas de Fabricação (BPF), RDC n. 17/2010 e RDC n. 63/2009 da ANVISA e requisitos de qualidade definidos pelas farmacopeias vigentes. Considerando que os volumes dos lotes de fabricação de radiofármacos são reduzidos, de algumas dezenas a centenas de mililitros, e a sua validade é de algumas horas a alguns dias, frequentemente tem sido utilizados sistemas purificadores de uso laboratorial para a produção de AP e API nas radiofarmácias. A determinação de carbono orgânico total (COT) é um dos requisitos a serem atendidos na avaliação da qualidade de AP e API e o seu limite é de 500 μg L-1. O objetivo deste estudo foi validar o método analítico de COT que combina reações de acidificação e de oxidação química do carbono para análise de carbono inorgânico (CI) e carbono total (CT), na análise de AP e API, avaliar o desempenho de sistemas de purificação de uso laboratorial para a produção de AP e API e comparar com a API adquirida de fornecedores externos. Utilizou-se um analisador de carbono modelo TOC-Vwp acoplado a um amostrador automático modelo ASI-V, ambos da marca Shimadzu® e controlados por software TOC Control-V e frascos de 40 mL lavados com HNO3 15%, com soluções de reagente oxidante (Na2S2O8 0,5 mol L-1) e acidificante (H3PO4 3,0 mol L-1), soluções de COT/CT (C8H5O4K) e CI (Na2CO3 e NaHCO3) nas concentrações 100-1000 μg L-1. Foram avaliados os parâmetros de validação de método: conformidade do sistema, robustez, repetibilidade, precisão intermediária, exatidão, linearidade e limites de detecção e quantificação. O desempenho de 5 sistemas de purificação foram avaliados, com amostragem de AP e API de 6 pontos (3 de AP e 3 de API) e foram analisados COT, condutividade, pH, contagem de aeróbios totais e endotoxina bacteriana (somente para API). As melhores condições de análise foram 2 mL de oxidante, 3% de acidificante, tempo de integração da curva de CT de 10 minutos e 3 minutos para CI. As curvas analíticas de CT e CI foram lineares nas faixas de concentrações analisadas, com a soma residual dos mínimos quadrados (r2) maior que 0,997. Os resultados de repetibilidade apresentaram valores entre 0,40 4,40%, a precisão intermediária por sua vez apresentou a seguinte variação, 0,65 a 4,63% e exatidão apresentou valores na faixa de 96,76-112,52%. Os limites de detecção (LD) e quantificação (LQ) foram 31,83 e 106,11 μg L-1 e 59,16 e 197,22 μg L-1, para CT e CI, respectivamente. A avaliação de desempenho dos purificadores indicam que um procedimento adequado de limpeza do reservatório de água é importante para manter a concentração de COT em cerca de 100 μg L-1. A análise de COT/CI pode ser utilizada como indicador da necessidade de manutenção do sistema purificador. Algumas API embaladas apresentaram COT acima de 500 μg L-1. O monitoramento de COT durante a avaliação de desempenho dos sistemas de uso laboratorial acoplados a reservatórios indicou que eles são equipamentos adequados para obtenção de AP e API em radiofarmácia. / Radiopharmaceuticals are pharmaceutical preparations that have one radionuclide in their composition. About 95% of them are used with diagnostic purposes and most of them are parenterally administered, requiring the use of purified water (PW) and water for injection (WFI) in the production process, quality control and research of new radiopharmaceuticals. The production of radiopharmaceuticals in Brazil must comply with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), RDC n. 17/2010 and RDC n. 63/2009 from ANVISA, and the requirements defined by current pharmacopoeias. Considering that the batch volumes of the radiopharmaceuticals are reduced, up to some milliliters, and the shelf lives are from hours to a few days, purification systems for laboratory use have often been used to produce PW and WFI in the radiopharmacies. The determination of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) is one of the requirements for the assessment of PW and WFI and its limit is 500 μg L-1. The aim of this study was to validate the analytical method for TOC analysis that combines acidification and chemical oxidation to quantify inorganic carbon (IC) and total carbon (TC) in the analysis of PW and WFI; to evaluate the performance of purification systems for laboratorial use to produce PW and WFI and to compare with WFI acquired from external suppliers. It was used a carbon analyzer model TOC-Vwp coupled to an autosampler model ASI-V, both from Shimadzu® controlled by TOC-V Control software and 40 mL vials washed with 15% HNO3, an oxidizing reagent (Na2S2O8 0.5 mol L-1), an acid reagent (H3PO4 3.0 mol L-1), TOC/TC (C8H5O4K) and IC (Na2CO3 and NaHCO3) solutions in the range of 0 - 1000 μg L-1. The evaluated validation parameters were system suitability, robustness, repeatability, intermediate precision, accuracy, linearity and detection and quantification limits. The performance of 5 purification systems were evaluated by sampling PW and WFI from 6 places (3 were PW and 3 WFI) and TOC, conductivity, pH, total aerobic count and bacterial endotoxin (API only) were analyzed. The best conditions of analysis were 2.0 mL oxidizing reagent, 3% acid reagent, 10 minutes integration curve time for TC and 3 minutes for IC. The TC and IC analytical curves were linear in the evaluated range, with residual sum of minimum squares (r2) greater than 0.997. The results of repeatability were from 0.40 to 4.40%, intermediate precision were from 0.65 to 4.63%, and accuracy were in the range of 96.76 to 112.52%. The detection limit (DL) and quantification limit (QL) were 31.83 and 106.11 μg L-1 and 59.16 and 197.22 μg L-1 for IC and TC, respectively. The evaluation of the performance of the water purification system indicated that an adequate procedure for cleaning of the storage tank is important to maintain TOC concentration about 100 μg L-1. TOC /IC analysis can be used as an indicator of the need for maintenance of the purification system. Some commercial packed WFI presented TOC above 500 μg L-1. The TOC monitoring during evaluation of the performance of purification systems for laboratory use coupled with storage tank indicated that they are suitable equipment for obtaining PW and WFI in radiopharmacies.

A pesquisa objetivou avaliar o estado da arte da inovação no setor de saúde animal, tanto no sentido de saber como e o que está sendo produzido, quanto à verificação de possíveis interações com as universidades. Ainda, a ausência de trabalhos publicados avaliando os tipos de patentes depositadas, bem como os grupos de pesquisa que atuam, direta ou indiretamente, nesta área fortaleceu a necessidade de iniciar uma pesquisa nesse sentido. Assim, por meio do levantamento e classificação de patentes depositadas, no Brasil, por indústrias de saúde animal e universidades públicas bem com estudo dos grupos de pesquisa do CNPq, buscou-se verificar o perfil de produção científico/tecnológico entre os dois atores principais (públicos e privados). Além disso, pontuou-se o que existe de demanda e oportunidade para inovação em saúde animal e fez-se uma primeira análise do nível de interação entre os grupos de pesquisa, que poderiam representar oportunidades de inovação, e empresas. Os resultados mostraram que o perfil de produção científica e tecnologia dos dois atores envolvidos, indústria e universidades, é distinto. Observa-se que as empresas de saúde animal apresentam maior número de depósitos de patente nas áreas de produtos biológicos e antiparasitários, enquanto as universidades apresentam pesquisas mais diluídas em temas de interesse para o setor de saúde animal, o que foi verificado tanto nas patentes depositadas quando na avaliação dos grupos de pesquisa. Ainda, verificou-se que, dos grupos avaliados, poucos declaram alguma parceria com instituições privadas. De uma forma geral, está sendo produzido conhecimento muito valioso nas universidades brasileiras que pode ser trabalhado em prol de colocar novas alternativas de medicamentos e terapias veterinárias. Neste contexto, acredita-se que a maior cooperação entre universidades e empresas da área de saúde animal poderá beneficiar o mercado e a sociedade com novas soluções. / The goal of this research is to evaluate the state of art on innovation of the animal health sector, studying what has been produced and how, and the possible interactions with universities. The absence of published papers evaluating patents as well as the research groups that act, directly or indirectly, in the area of animal health have strengthened the need to initiate this research. Thus, through the survey and classification of patents registered in Brazil by animal health companies and public universities, as well as the evaluation of CNPq research groups, we sought to verify the scientific / technological production profile between the two main parties (public and private). In addition, this work pointed iut the existing demand and opportunity for innovation in animal health and an initial analysis of the level of interaction between research groups and companies was made. The results showed that the scientific - technological production profile of the two parties is distinct. It was observed that animal health companies showed greater registration of patents on the areas of biological and antiparasitic products, while universities had patent registration more distributed on the topics of interest for animal health. These observations were true for both, registered patents and research groups do not state a partnership with a private company in the animal health industry. In general, information is created in Brazilian universities, and it can be used on the development for new alternatives for veterinary medicines and therapies. In conclusion, it is possible that greater cooperation between universities and animal health companies could benefit the market and the society with new solutions.

The purpose of this dissertation is to examine the extent of competition between generic products and therapeutic substitutes under different regulatory regimes in the European Union (EU) pharmaceutical industry. In particular, this study investigates generic competition among the five largest European pharmaceutical markets; the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy and Spain, with comprehensive IMS data for 10 years (1994-2003), in order to estimate the effect of generic entry on drug prices at the product level. This analysis finds that generic entry has a negative effect on prices in countries with free pricing originator market, whereas in EU countries with strict price and reimbursement regulation, generic competition is ineffective and/or counterproductive. Fewer generics and less competitive late entrants are consistent with incentives in regulated environments: low regulated prices for originator products discourage generic entry following patent expiration. These findings suggest that regulation of both manufacturers' prices and retail pharmacy prices undermines price competition in the off-patent sector, and that budgetary savings from generic price competition are not realized in countries with strict regulatory systems.

[pt] Este estudo tem por objetivo testar as tipologias estratégicas de Porter, Mintzberg e Miles & Snow nas indústrias farmacêuticas que operam no Brasil, destacando o trade-off clássico, poder explanatório versus parcimonialidade na capacidade descritiva destas tipologias. Para isso, foi feita uma revisão bibliográfica compreendendo estratégias, ambiente e desempenho, e utilizada uma base de dados com informações sobre as cinqüenta maiores indústrias farmacêuticas em operação no Brasil, selecionadas pelo critério de faturamento. Desta base de dados foram extraídas dez variáveis estratégicas e sete variáveis de desempenho. Estas variáveis foram avaliadas estatisticamente empregando-se entre outras análises, a análise de cluster e MANOVA, de forma a permitir a identificação de grupos estratégicos de acordo com as tipologias em estudo. Por fim, o desempenho médio dos grupos estratégicos formados foi comparado com os resultados esperados pelos respectivos modelos teóricos. Constatou-se que as três tipologias testadas exibem capacidades descritivas distintas, sendo que a de Porter demonstrou maior aderência às indústrias farmacêuticas em operação no Brasil. A parcimonialidade venceu o poder explanatório neste mercado em profunda transformação. / [en] This study’s objective is to test of Porter’s, Mintzberg’s and Miles & Snow’s strategic typologies in the pharmaceutical industries that operate in Brazil, detaching the explanatory capability versus parsimony classic trade-off in its capacity to describe these typologies. A bibliographical revision was made including strategies, environment and performance, using a database with information about the largest fifty pharmaceutical industries operating in Brazil based on invoicing criteria. Ten strategic variables and seven performance variables had been extracted from this database. These variables had been evaluated using statistical procedures as cluster analysis and MANOVA, in order to allow the identification of strategic groups according to the typologies being studied. Finally, the strategic groups average performances were compared to the respective theoretical models expected results. The three tested typologies showed distinct descriptive capabilities. Porter’s typology demonstrated greater tack to the pharmaceutical industries operating in Brazil. The parsimony won the explanatory capability in this market in deep transformation.

[pt] O propósito desse estudo é analisar as estratégias competitivas implementadas por empresas da indústria farmacêutica brasileira. Este trabalho adota como base o estudo de Chrisman sobre tipologias, identificando as estratégias relevantes e os grupos existentes nessa indústria, relacionando o posicionamento estratégico adotado pelos laboratórios com seu desempenho no setor. Além disso, a pesquisa busca analisar impactos do advento dos genéricos nessa indústria. O método de análise utilizado constituí- se do levantamento de uma base de dados obtida a partir de relatórios de consultorias especializadas, da identificação de variáveis estratégicas e de desempenho e da implementação de procedimentos estatísticos. Os posicionamentos e desempenhos identificados entre os anos de 1999 e 2002 sugerem a adoção de redução de custos como arma estratégica, ao contrário do que acontecia antes no mercado, onde havia um foco maior em diferenciação. O estudo também sugere que os grandes laboratórios ainda conseguem obter um desempenho superior baseados em suas marcas reconhecidas e grande escala de operação, enquanto os laboratórios nacionais, de menor porte, estão investindo cada vez mais no segmento de medicamentos genéricos. / [en] The aim of this study is to analyze the competitive strategies implemented by Brazilian pharmaceutical companies. This research is based on Chrisman s studies on strategic typologies, identifying the relevant strategies and the existing groups in this industrial sector. The study also relates the strategic positioning of the pharmaceutical companies to the achieved performance and analyzes the impact of the generic drugs launching in the sector. The methodology adopted is based on the analysis of collected database from reports of specialized consulting companies, the survey of strategy and performance indicators, as well as the implementation of statistical procedures. The relation of positioning and performance identified in the period between the years 1999 and 2002 suggests a movement to adoption of cost strategy, against the differentiation oriented focus of the industrial sector before the generic drugs launching. The results also suggest that the great companies are still able to have a superior performance due to their well known marks and operation scale, while smaller companies tend to invest in the generic drugs segment.

This thesis consists of two parts. The first part includes two essays that deal with the pharmaceutical market, and one essay that looks at strategic incentives that arise in optimal treatment involving untried drugs. The second part, consisting of two essays, examines some implications of altruism. Part I: Two of the essays (joint with Mats Ekelund) are empirical studies of the pharmaceutical market in Sweden. We consider all New Chemical Entities (NCEs) introduced in Sweden between 1987 and 1997. In the first essay, we examine drug pricing in the price regulated Swedish market and compare the results with a previous study of the US market, where no such regulation exists. Similar to the US study, we find that relative launch prices are positively correlated with the degree of therapeutic advance. In contrast to the US study, the presence of substitutes has a negligible effect on both launch prices and price dynamics. In the second essay, we consider the empirical relation between therapeutic advance and market shares. We use a model of horizontal and vertical product differentiation to derive a hypothesis that is tested on the NCE data. Vertically differentiated drugs on average gain larger market shares and command higher prices than horizontally differentiated drugs. Moreover, as a general rule competing substitutes have less influence on the former than on the latter. In the third essay, we develop a simple model of strategic interaction in which two agents learn about a common payoff relevant parameter. The motivating example considers two physicians who choose between two treatments, one of which has an unknown success rate. The physicians learn about the unknown treatment by prescribing it (experimenting). We contrast two information scenarios, one in which the physicians can observe the outcomes of their own treatments only, and the other in which they also can observe the outcomes from the other physician’s treatments. The pure equilibria entail an efficient amount of experimentation in both scenarios. However, strong free riding effects arise in the latter case. These are likely to cause Pareto dominated outcomes in which learning is completely thwarted. Part II: The fourth essay (joint with Jörgen W. Weibull) examines the behavior on insurance markets in a large economy when individuals have altruistic concerns for others’ welfare. The main question we address is whether strategic incentives to free ride on others’ altruism can cause insurance market failure. We also study the interaction between altruism and the adverse selection effects that arise when there is asymmetric information about the individuals’ loss probabilities. We find that if the individuals differ in their risk, and if the individual risks are observable by insurers, the degree of altruism must be (perhaps unrealistically) high in order to cause market failure. A more complex pattern is found in the case of asymmetric information: low levels of altruism increase the number of equilibria (compared to the case without altruism), while high levels of altruism cause complete market failure. The fifth essay (joint with Magnus Johannesson) also considers behavior consistentwith preferences for others’ welfare. We are concerned with how subjects allocate moneybetween themselves and others in a dictator game experiment. Deviations from the standard game theoretic prediction of the outcome in this game have been observed in numerous experiments. One possible explanation for this behavior is that individuals have altruistic concerns for others; another explanation is that individuals are motivated by reciprocity. We perform a standard double blind procedure and another design in which anonymity is guaranteed between dictators and recipients, thus removing any remaining reciprocity from the standard procedure. We could not reject the null hypothesis of no difference between the experimental groups in the two procedures. We interpret this finding as evidence of other-regarding behavior not motivated by reciprocity. / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan, 2001