The amazon ecosystems have been compromised by historical forms of occupation and land-use causing habitat loss and forest fragmentation. These anthropogenic disturbances associated to climate changes have direct consequences on the distribution of species and their in situ persistence. Currently, 76 of 14.003 plants taxonomically identified in the Amazon have been listed by the Brasilian Ministry of the Environment as threatened species, though we believe this number to be much bigger in the reality. Among them, Amazon-nut (Bertholletia excelsa), a native tree species, national and internationally known for its cultural, social-economic and nutritional value has been classified as vulnerable. For developping of public policy turned to its management and conservation is fundamental to know the percentage of habitat available, as well as the nature and scale of threats to this environments. Species distribution modelling is an increasingly important tool for predicting habitat suitability and for understanding species environmental tolerances, but has been rarely used in Brazil, especially for Amazonian species. This study aimed to model the potential distribution of B. excelsa in the Amazon biome and to know the factors that control its distribution. To enhance our analysis, case studies were carried out with stakeholders aiming to know their perceptions about the main threats to the species and potential solutions.This research project was based on two hypotheses: (i) There is a suitable habitat to Amazon-nut which require different objectives for conservation and planting; (ii) If the local people are aware of the species vulnerability, they are able to point out the factors that cause this condition. In the chapter 1, habitat was investigated using MAXENT algoritm. We collected 3,325 Amazon-nut records and organized one hundred-and-two environmental variables into climatic, edaphic and geophysical categories at a spatial resolution of 30 arcs-second (~1km). Multi-colinearity between variables was dealt with multivariate statistics associated to expert\'s knowledge, and presence data biased with the spatial filtering. The best model was selected adopting quantitative metrics and visual examination. The most importante biophysic variables we identified were: altitude (m), coarse soil fragments (<2mm) and clay (%). Finaly, the best model indicated 2.3 million km2 i.e., 32% of the Amazon basin has potential for B. excelsa to grow. In the chapter 2, the factors that affect Amazon-nut conservation and planting were discussed with local communities, public managers and researchers, totalyzing 203 participants. Focus groups, individual interviews and questionaire techniques were used to gather information. Data were categorized and the perceptions among stakeholders compared using quali-quantitative analyses. We found that there are currently 36 problems responsible for the species vulnerability and 72% of them belong to environmental and political contexts. Deforestation was the main problem mentioned, followed by fruit depreciation, control failures and lack of organization in the communities. For three groups of stakeholders, the main solutions were related to political context. The results obtained in this study contribute to increase ecological knowledge on the species, to demonstrate the complexity of sustainable use in the Amazon and to guide decisions makers in the selection of priority areas for conservation and potential planting. / Os ecossistemas amazônicos vêm sendo impactados ao longo dos anos por diversos processos de uso e ocupação do território, os quais têm resultado em perdas de habitats e na fragmentação da paisagem nativa. Essas perturbações antrópicas, associadas às mudanças climáticas, têm consequências diretas sobre a distribuição e persistência das espécies in situ. Das 14.003 plantas da Amazônia reconhecidas taxonomicamente, somente 76 estão atualmente listadas pelo Ministério do Meio Ambiente brasileiro como espécies ameaçadas, embora acredita-se que esse número seja muito maior. Entre elas, a Castanha-da-Amazônia (Bertholletia excelsa), uma espécie de árvore nativa, reconhecida nacional e internacionalmente pela sua importância cultural, socioeconômica e nutricional, encontra-se classificada como vulnerável. Para nortear políticas públicas na conservação e no plantio dessa espécie, um profundo entendimento sobre o habitat disponível para ela, bem como a origem e escala das ameaças à esse ambiente, é necessário. A modelagem de distribuição de espécies é uma ferramenta que oferece predições espaciais robustas sobre a adequabilidade de habitat e tolerância das espécies, mas tem sido pouco utilizada no Brasil, sobretudo para espécies Amazônicas. Nesse contexto, esse estudo objetivou modelar a distribuição potencial da B. excelsa no bioma Amazônia, bem como conhecer os fatores que controlam sua distribuição. Para aprofundar essas análises, estudos de caso foram realizados com o objetivo de conhecer a percepção de atores sociais envolvidos com a espécie sobre as principais ameaças e potenciais soluções. Essa tese baseou-se em duas hipóteses: (i) existem áreas com maior adequabilidade para a ocorrência da Castanha-da-Amazônia que demandam diferentes objetivos, para conservação e para o plantio; (ii) se a população local é conciente da vulnerabilidade da espécie, ela pode indicar os fatores que geram essa condição. No capítulo 1, o habitat foi investigado por meio de simulações usando o algoritmo MAXENT. Um total de 3.325 ocorrências e 102 variáveis ambientais foram obtidas, e posteriormente organizadas por categorias climática, edáfica e geofísica. A resolução espacial escolhida foi de 30 arc-segundo (~1km). A multi-colinearidade entre as variáveis foi reduzida por meio da estatística multivariada associada ao conhecimento de especialistas, e as tendências nas ocorrência foram tratadas através da filtragem espacial. O melhor modelo foi selecionado usando métricas quantitativas e examinações visuais. As variáveis biofísicas mais importantes encontradas foram altitude (m), solos com fragmentos grosseiros (<2mm) e argila (%). Por fim, o modelo indicou que 2.3 million km2 i.e., 32% da região amazônica é apropriado para B. excelsa crescer. No capítulo 2, os fatores que afetam a conservação e o plantio da espécie foram discutidos com comunidades, gestores e pesquisadores locais, totalizando 203 participantes. As técnicas de discussão em grupo focal, entrevistas individuais e questionários foram utilizadas para a coleta das informações. Os dados foram categorizados e as opiniões entre os diferentes grupos comparadas utilizando análises quali-quantitativas. Concluiu-se que atualmente existem 36 problemas responsáveis pela vulnerabilidade da espécie, dos quais 72% encontram-se no contexto ambiental e político. O desmatamento foi a principal forçante apontada, seguida pela desvalorização do fruto, falhas na fiscalização e falta de organização nas comunidades. Para os três grupos, as principais soluções foram voltadas para o contexto político. Os resultados obtidos nesse estudo contribuiem para aumentar o conhecimento ecológico da espécie, para demostrar a complexidade do uso sustentável na Amazônia, e orientar tomadores de decisão na seleção de áreas prioritárias para conservação e potenciais para o plantio.

Abstract The world is losing its biodiversity at an alarming rate and many agencies are committing to considerable investment in global conservation. Given the enormity of environmental issues, the funding available to managers is insufficient. Managers must make decisions about how to act within the bounds of this limited funding. Conservation decision-making is also limited by a lack of knowledge about the systems we are trying to conserve. Much of the information required for effective conservation is uncertain. In this thesis I focus on practical ways of approaching the immense predicament of how to make good conservation decisions in the face of these two limitations. In chapter two I provide both an optimal framework and analytic rule of thumb for allocating limited funding among subpopulations of a threatened species. My results show that the number of subpopulations we can effectively manage is driven by the economic constraints placed on management and the risk of extinction of the species we are trying to protect. We discover that it is rarely optimal to manage all the remaining isolated subpopulations of a threatened species. This highlights the importance of a triage approach to the management of subpopulations of a threatened species under the current climate of limited funding, leading us to coin the term ‘subpopulation triage’. One key area of uncertainty that links directly with how we allocate resources for conservation is uncertainty in the impact of our management actions on the systems we are trying to protect (the impact-investment curve). This relationship often drives the outcomes of our decision-making frameworks. In chapter three I investigate how uncertainty in the impact-investment curve, assumed in chapter two, alters our optimal management decision. Again, I find that limited conservation finances are a major limiting factor in the robustness of a strategy to our incomplete understanding. I discover that ‘subpopulation triage’ can be a natural consequence of robust decision-making. Uncertainty is not, however, always beyond our control. We can reduce it by diverting funding from management to collect data on our systems. This entails monitoring costs that must also be considered when making optimal conservation decisions. There are a number of reasons why we could monitor; to reduce our uncertainty in the status of threatened species where management is driven by species status; to aid learning about a component of the system we are managing; for both initial surveillance and adaptive approaches; and to report on the performances of conservation action to stakeholders. In chapter four I assess the benefit of initial surveillance to gain information on biodiversity value before we acquire a land parcel for the reserve network. The risk here is that the land parcel may be removed from the market during surveying. I describe both an optimal method, using stochastic dynamic programming (SDP), and a simple rule of thumb, for how to make such decisions. The solutions to this problem illustrate how optimal conservation is necessarily dynamic and that immediate implementation of a conservation plan may not always yield the best conservation outcome. Learning does not always need to take place in the absence of management. In chapter five I investigate adaptive learning for a threatened species where we must discriminate between multiple hypotheses of how the system works by implementing different management actions. We find that the optimal action depends on our belief in each model being the true model of our system, the benefit from each action under each model, and the number of sites available to implement an active adaptive strategy. In chapter six I investigate when one should learn about the state of the system through monitoring when management is state-dependent. Here our management of subpopulations of a threatened species is based on whether these subpopulations persist. I ask when should we survey or manage a subpopulation, and when, if ever, should we do nothing in a subpopulation of a threatened species. I find that management actions should not only be driven by the return on investment gained by managing a subpopulation but also by our certainty of the persistence of a subpopulation. This is the first work to show a direct trade-off between return on investment from conservation action and reduced uncertainty. One key evaluation method currently adopted worldwide is the use of ‘State of the Environment’ reporting. In chapter seven I assess the flaws of ‘State of the Environment’ reporting, the current method adopted worldwide for evaluating conservation policy. I show the positive biases inherent in such reporting and provide a new metric for reporting on conservation performance that is simple, transparent and provides an unbiased report on performance in reaching conservation objectives. I show that without honest reporting of conservation gains – and losses – we limit our ability to assess where we are in terms of conservation progress. Overall my thesis shows the need for managers to consider a triage approach to threatened species management, not as a process of giving up, but as a tool for ensuring species persistence in light of the urgency of most conservation requirements and the realities of financial and knowledge limitations. Indeed if conservation is a field dedicated to the protection of biodiversity then those responsible for decision-making––politicians, scientists and environmental managers––must use whatever approach gives the best outcome for the environment. Under current limitations, triage is often a necessity not an option.

As orquídeas terrestres estão distribuídas amplamente em ambientes tropicais e temperados do mundo. O habitat terrestre, para orquídeas, engloba distintas formações vegetais, como florestas, savanas, campos e banhados. Neste estudo consideramos, para a estimativa da amplitude e da ocorrência destas plantas, nove tipos de florestas no estado do Rio Grande do Sul no sul do Brasil, localizadas totalmente em latitudes subtropicais. Revisamos amostras de espécimes depositadas em sete herbários regionais e atualizamos a identificação das espécies para as circunscrições genéricas atuais. Com base nas localizações das amostras estimamos dois parâmetros de amplitude, nomeados extensão de ocorrência e área de ocupação, objetivando determinar o estado de conservação das espécies de acordo com as categorias da IUCN. Como resultado, encontramos 22 gêneros e 50 espécies, a maioria dos gêneros (15) possui apenas uma espécie no estado. Os gêneros mais diversificados foram Cyclopogon, Aspidogyne e Malaxis, com 14, oito e quatro espécies, respectivamente. Outros quatro gêneros apresentaram três (Pelexia) ou duas (Habenaria, Prescottia, e Sarcoglottis) espécies nos ambientes florestais. As estimativas de amplitude, especialmente a área de ocupação, resultaram em um elevado número de espécies ameaçadas. Espécies criticamente ameaçadas, considerando a extensão de ocorrência, estão distribuídas em sete gêneros e 18 espécies. O tipo de floresta mais diversificado foi a floresta estacional da Serra Geral, seguido pela floresta Atlântica e pela floresta estacional do Escudo Cristalino. Um total de 19 espécies ocorreu somente em uma formação e apenas quatro espécies ocorreram em seis ou sete tipos de florestas. O número de registros neste estudo mostrou que as orquídeas terrestres em ambientes florestais são um grupo subamostrado, que possuem poucas coletas e são pouco avaliadas em estudos ecológicos com populações e comunidades de sub-bosque. Mais estudos são necessários para determinar com maior precisão a extensão de ocorrência, o tamanho das populações, e o estado real de conservação das espécies nativas. / Terrestrial orchids occur widespread in tropical and temperate environments around the world. The terrestrial habitat for orchid species comprises several distinct plant formations, like forests, woodlands, grasslands and wetlands. In this study we focused the estimation of range sizes and the occurrence of these plants in nine forest types in the South Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul, located entirely in subtropical latitudes. We revised sampled specimens deposited in seven regional herbaria and updated species identifications to current generic circumscriptions. Based on sampling locations we estimated two range size parameters, namely extent of occurrence and area of occupancy, aiming to determine the conservation status according to IUCN categories. As a result we found 22 genera and 50 species, most genera (15) having of them a single species in the state. The most diversified genera were Cyclopogon, Aspidogyne and Malaxis, with 14, eight and four species, respectively. Four additional genera presented three (Pelexia) or two (Habenaria, Prescottia, and Sarcoglottis) species in forest environments. Range size estimations, especially through area of occupancy, resulted in an outstanding number of threatened species. Critically endangered species according to extent of occurrence were distributed in seven genera and 18 species. The most diversified forest types were the central Serra Geral seasonal forests, followed by the Atlantic rainforest and the southeast Crystalline Shield seasonal forests. A total of 19 species occurred in a single forest formation and only four species occurred widespread in six or seven forest types. The number of recordings in this study showed to be exponentially related to species range according to forest types. Our study showed that terrestrial orchids in forest environments are an overlooked plant group, which has been poorly sampled and poorly evaluated in ecological studies concerning understory populations and communities. Further studies are necessary to determine more precisely the extent of occurrence, the size of populations, and the real conservation status of native species.

As orquídeas terrestres estão distribuídas amplamente em ambientes tropicais e temperados do mundo. O habitat terrestre, para orquídeas, engloba distintas formações vegetais, como florestas, savanas, campos e banhados. Neste estudo consideramos, para a estimativa da amplitude e da ocorrência destas plantas, nove tipos de florestas no estado do Rio Grande do Sul no sul do Brasil, localizadas totalmente em latitudes subtropicais. Revisamos amostras de espécimes depositadas em sete herbários regionais e atualizamos a identificação das espécies para as circunscrições genéricas atuais. Com base nas localizações das amostras estimamos dois parâmetros de amplitude, nomeados extensão de ocorrência e área de ocupação, objetivando determinar o estado de conservação das espécies de acordo com as categorias da IUCN. Como resultado, encontramos 22 gêneros e 50 espécies, a maioria dos gêneros (15) possui apenas uma espécie no estado. Os gêneros mais diversificados foram Cyclopogon, Aspidogyne e Malaxis, com 14, oito e quatro espécies, respectivamente. Outros quatro gêneros apresentaram três (Pelexia) ou duas (Habenaria, Prescottia, e Sarcoglottis) espécies nos ambientes florestais. As estimativas de amplitude, especialmente a área de ocupação, resultaram em um elevado número de espécies ameaçadas. Espécies criticamente ameaçadas, considerando a extensão de ocorrência, estão distribuídas em sete gêneros e 18 espécies. O tipo de floresta mais diversificado foi a floresta estacional da Serra Geral, seguido pela floresta Atlântica e pela floresta estacional do Escudo Cristalino. Um total de 19 espécies ocorreu somente em uma formação e apenas quatro espécies ocorreram em seis ou sete tipos de florestas. O número de registros neste estudo mostrou que as orquídeas terrestres em ambientes florestais são um grupo subamostrado, que possuem poucas coletas e são pouco avaliadas em estudos ecológicos com populações e comunidades de sub-bosque. Mais estudos são necessários para determinar com maior precisão a extensão de ocorrência, o tamanho das populações, e o estado real de conservação das espécies nativas. / Terrestrial orchids occur widespread in tropical and temperate environments around the world. The terrestrial habitat for orchid species comprises several distinct plant formations, like forests, woodlands, grasslands and wetlands. In this study we focused the estimation of range sizes and the occurrence of these plants in nine forest types in the South Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul, located entirely in subtropical latitudes. We revised sampled specimens deposited in seven regional herbaria and updated species identifications to current generic circumscriptions. Based on sampling locations we estimated two range size parameters, namely extent of occurrence and area of occupancy, aiming to determine the conservation status according to IUCN categories. As a result we found 22 genera and 50 species, most genera (15) having of them a single species in the state. The most diversified genera were Cyclopogon, Aspidogyne and Malaxis, with 14, eight and four species, respectively. Four additional genera presented three (Pelexia) or two (Habenaria, Prescottia, and Sarcoglottis) species in forest environments. Range size estimations, especially through area of occupancy, resulted in an outstanding number of threatened species. Critically endangered species according to extent of occurrence were distributed in seven genera and 18 species. The most diversified forest types were the central Serra Geral seasonal forests, followed by the Atlantic rainforest and the southeast Crystalline Shield seasonal forests. A total of 19 species occurred in a single forest formation and only four species occurred widespread in six or seven forest types. The number of recordings in this study showed to be exponentially related to species range according to forest types. Our study showed that terrestrial orchids in forest environments are an overlooked plant group, which has been poorly sampled and poorly evaluated in ecological studies concerning understory populations and communities. Further studies are necessary to determine more precisely the extent of occurrence, the size of populations, and the real conservation status of native species.

As regiões tropicais têm sofrido drásticas modificações na paisagem ao longo do tempo. No Brasil, o bioma Cerrado é considerado um dos mais vulneráveis devido à crescente destruição ocasionada pela ação antrópica, sendo o bioma mais ameaçado do mundo. Restam apenas 20% da cobertura original do Cerrado em todo o país e somente 2,2% estão inseridos em áreas protegidas. Com essa crítica situação de conservação, além da rápida destruição de seus hábitats naturais e também por possuir uma elevada riqueza biológica, o Cerrado foi incluso entre os 25 hotspots mundiais. A redução excessiva das áreas nativas pode provocar a extinção de muitas espécies de aves, principalmente espécies especialistas de áreas campestres. Em aves, a seleção de hábitat é entendida como um processo hierárquico de respostas comportamentais que influenciam a sobrevivência e a aptidão dos indivíduos. A diminuição de sítios adequados para a nidificação no ambiente pode ser um fator crítico que determina a extinção local de muitas espécies de aves. Outro aspecto de extrema importância, é a compreensão de fatores relacionados à história de vida das espécies. Descrições detalhadas sobre a biologia reprodutiva da avifauna são de fundamental importância, ainda mais que muitas das espécies de aves neotropicais ainda não possuem descrições sobre informações básicas de suas histórias de vidas. Diante disso, visamos no capítulo I descrever a biologia reprodutiva de Alecturus tricolor e Sporophila pileata, dois Passeriformes dos quais muito pouco se sabe sobre aspectos fundamentais das suas histórias de vida. No capítulo II visamos entender como algumas aves de fitofisionomias campestres de cerrado selecionam o microhábitat para a nidificação e como essas escolhas podem influenciar no sucesso reprodutivo dessas espécies / Tropical regions have undergone drastic changes in the landscape over time. In Brazil, the Cerrado is considered one of the most vulnerable biomes due to increased destruction caused by human action; it is the most threatened biome in the world. Only 20% of the original cover of the Cerrado remains across the country and only 2.2% is included in protected areas. With this critical conservation situation, the rapid destruction of their natural habitats along with its high biological richness, the Cerrado has been included among the 25 global \"hotspots\". Excessive reduction of native areas can cause the extinction of many bird species, principally species specific to grassland areas. Among birds, the habitat selection is understood as a hierarchical process of behavioral responses that influence the survival and fitness of individuals. The reduction of suitable nesting sites in the environment may be a critical factor that determines the local extinction of many species of birds. Another very important aspect is the understanding of factors related to the life history of the species. Detailed descriptions of the reproductive biology of birds are of fundamental importance, even more so since many of neotropical birds still do not have descriptions of basic information of their life histories. Therefore, we aim in chapter I to describe the reproductive biology of tricolor Alecturus tricolor and Sporophila pileata, two Passeriformes of which very little is known about key aspects of their life histories. In Chapter II we aim to understand how some birds of grassland physiognomies of the cerrado select the microhabitats for nesting and how these choices can influence the reproductive success of these species

As orquídeas terrestres estão distribuídas amplamente em ambientes tropicais e temperados do mundo. O habitat terrestre, para orquídeas, engloba distintas formações vegetais, como florestas, savanas, campos e banhados. Neste estudo consideramos, para a estimativa da amplitude e da ocorrência destas plantas, nove tipos de florestas no estado do Rio Grande do Sul no sul do Brasil, localizadas totalmente em latitudes subtropicais. Revisamos amostras de espécimes depositadas em sete herbários regionais e atualizamos a identificação das espécies para as circunscrições genéricas atuais. Com base nas localizações das amostras estimamos dois parâmetros de amplitude, nomeados extensão de ocorrência e área de ocupação, objetivando determinar o estado de conservação das espécies de acordo com as categorias da IUCN. Como resultado, encontramos 22 gêneros e 50 espécies, a maioria dos gêneros (15) possui apenas uma espécie no estado. Os gêneros mais diversificados foram Cyclopogon, Aspidogyne e Malaxis, com 14, oito e quatro espécies, respectivamente. Outros quatro gêneros apresentaram três (Pelexia) ou duas (Habenaria, Prescottia, e Sarcoglottis) espécies nos ambientes florestais. As estimativas de amplitude, especialmente a área de ocupação, resultaram em um elevado número de espécies ameaçadas. Espécies criticamente ameaçadas, considerando a extensão de ocorrência, estão distribuídas em sete gêneros e 18 espécies. O tipo de floresta mais diversificado foi a floresta estacional da Serra Geral, seguido pela floresta Atlântica e pela floresta estacional do Escudo Cristalino. Um total de 19 espécies ocorreu somente em uma formação e apenas quatro espécies ocorreram em seis ou sete tipos de florestas. O número de registros neste estudo mostrou que as orquídeas terrestres em ambientes florestais são um grupo subamostrado, que possuem poucas coletas e são pouco avaliadas em estudos ecológicos com populações e comunidades de sub-bosque. Mais estudos são necessários para determinar com maior precisão a extensão de ocorrência, o tamanho das populações, e o estado real de conservação das espécies nativas. / Terrestrial orchids occur widespread in tropical and temperate environments around the world. The terrestrial habitat for orchid species comprises several distinct plant formations, like forests, woodlands, grasslands and wetlands. In this study we focused the estimation of range sizes and the occurrence of these plants in nine forest types in the South Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul, located entirely in subtropical latitudes. We revised sampled specimens deposited in seven regional herbaria and updated species identifications to current generic circumscriptions. Based on sampling locations we estimated two range size parameters, namely extent of occurrence and area of occupancy, aiming to determine the conservation status according to IUCN categories. As a result we found 22 genera and 50 species, most genera (15) having of them a single species in the state. The most diversified genera were Cyclopogon, Aspidogyne and Malaxis, with 14, eight and four species, respectively. Four additional genera presented three (Pelexia) or two (Habenaria, Prescottia, and Sarcoglottis) species in forest environments. Range size estimations, especially through area of occupancy, resulted in an outstanding number of threatened species. Critically endangered species according to extent of occurrence were distributed in seven genera and 18 species. The most diversified forest types were the central Serra Geral seasonal forests, followed by the Atlantic rainforest and the southeast Crystalline Shield seasonal forests. A total of 19 species occurred in a single forest formation and only four species occurred widespread in six or seven forest types. The number of recordings in this study showed to be exponentially related to species range according to forest types. Our study showed that terrestrial orchids in forest environments are an overlooked plant group, which has been poorly sampled and poorly evaluated in ecological studies concerning understory populations and communities. Further studies are necessary to determine more precisely the extent of occurrence, the size of populations, and the real conservation status of native species.

Abstract Conservation of rare habitats and species are central elements in the management of semi-natural grasslands of high biodiversity. Understanding the impacts of various abiotic and biotic interactions and management methods on threatened species is fundamental to their conservation. In the present study, effects of competition, plant parasitism, grazing and mowing were studied at the community level in Bothnian Bay coastal meadows and in greenhouse. This was the first time when the impacts of various biotic interactions on the critically endangered creeping alkali grass (Puccinellia phryganodes) have been explored in detail in one of its rare occurrences in the boreal vegetation zone in Europe. In addition, questions related to ecological and economical sustainability of cattle grazing on coastal meadows were examined. Puccinellia phryganodes was found to suffer severely from competition with taller graminoids. Simulated and actual grazing by greylag goose, Anser anser, as well as infection by a hemiparasitic plant, Odontites litoralis, were found to indirectly benefit P. phryganodes by decreasing the competitive advantage of its competitors. In spite of the relatively intensive grazing by greylag goose in the field, P. phryganodes experienced a drastic decrease during four years in the grazed experimental quadrats and simultaneously the proportion of the taller graminoids increased substantially. Primary succession of coastal meadow vegetation was found to progress rapidly and continuous formation of suitable open habitats is therefore crucial for the subordinate species. Mowing was found to be an effective management method for some threatened plant species in coastal meadows, but not for P. phryganodes, which would probably benefit more, for example, from livestock grazing. Both lightly and rather intensively managed large open meadows could provide optimal habitats for the critically endangered lesser white fronted goose (Anser erythropus) as well as for the greylag goose. The relatively low and variable yield of the coastal meadow vegetation compared to that of cultivated grasslands sets limits how management by cattle grazing can be implemented. Key factors for both the biodiversity management and livestock production in coastal meadows are timing of the grazing season, intensity of grazing and selection of suitable types of animals.

Adaptive management is an approach to problem solving that acknowledges uncertainty. Adaptive management involves a systematic and rigorous process of learning from the outcomes of management actions, accommodating change and improving management. Plans, policies or management strategies influenced by new information and learning, are modified. This study examines the implementation of adaptive management for endangered and threatened species covered in Habitat Conservation Plans (HCP). Introduced in 1982 as an amendment to the Endangered Species Act (ESA), Habitat Conservation Plans are negotiated agreements that mitigate the incidental "take" (killing, harming) of endangered and threatened species during a development or resource extraction project. However, scholars found the scientific basis of approved HCPs to be inadequate and the efficacy of prescribed mitigation measures untested implying the need for adaptive management during implementation. This case study evaluation investigates HCP landowner compliance and progress within the parameters of the federal 1994 "No Surprises" policy. That policy limits landowner liability and responsibility for additional conservation action due to failed mitigation measures during HCP implementation. "No Surprises" assumes we can predict all the consequences of implementing a HCP. The policy seems to work against the objectives of adaptive management to improve scientific knowledge and modify action. The cases include the Central Cascades HCP implemented in the Central Cascades of Washington and the Orange Central Coastal County HCP implemented within a nature reserve in Orange County, California. The study assesses the strengths and weaknesses of adaptive management implementation for protecting endangered species and their habitat, and 2) recommends mid-course corrections for improving adaptive management before HCP maturity. / Ph. D.

In our ever more populated world, the rapid expansion and intensification of agriculture is driving worldwide biodiversity loss, and the interactions between production landscapes and wildlife conservation are becoming increasingly important. Farming systems depend on ecosystem services such as biological control, while conservationists are calling for the establishment of conservation initiatives in non-preserve landscapes. Despite this, the goals of agriculture and the goals of predator-conservation are rarely mutual. Here, I demonstrate one of the first examples of a mutually beneficial scenario between agriculture and predator conservation. I used, as a case study, a reintroduction project that translocated individuals of the threatened New Zealand falcon (Falco novaeseelandiae) from the hills of Marlborough into vineyards, to determine if predators can survive within an agricultural landscape while simultaneously providing that landscape with biological control services. Examples of vertebrates providing biological control to agriculture are rare. I show that the presence of falcons in vineyards caused an economically important reduction in grape damage worth over US $230/ ha. Falcon presence caused a 78- 83% reduction in the number of introduced European pest birds, which resulted in a 95% reduction in the damage caused by these species. Falcon presence did not cause a reduction in the abundance of the native silvereye (Zosterops lateralis), but did halve the damage caused by this species. To assess the conservation value of the falcon translocations, I used remote videography, direct observations and prey analysis to measure the behavioural changes associated with the relocation of falcons from their natural habitat in the hills and into vineyards. Falcons in vineyard nests had higher nest attendance, higher brooding rates, and higher feeding rates than falcons in hill nests. Additionally, parents in vineyard nests fed their chicks a greater amount of total prey and larger prey items compared to parents in hill nests. I also found an absence of any significant diet differences between falcons in hill and vineyard habitats, suggesting that the latter may be a suitable alternative habitat for falcons. Because reintroduced juvenile falcons were released in areas devoid of adult falcons, it was possible that they were missing essential training normally provided by their parents. I used direct observations to demonstrate that the presence of siblings had similar effects to the presence of parents on the development of juvenile behaviour, with individuals flying, hunting, and playing more often when conspecifics were present. Finally, through the use of artificial nests and remote videography, I identified that falcons nesting in vineyards are likely to suffer lower predation rates. I also found that falcons in vineyards are predated by a less dangerous suite of animals (such as hedgehogs, Erinaceus europaeus, and avian predators), than their counterparts in the hills, which are predated by more voracious species (such as stoats, Mustela erminea, and feral cats, Felis catus). The work presented in this thesis has also added to the current knowledge of New Zealand falcon breeding behaviour, prey preferences, and behavioural development. Although agricultural regions globally are rarely associated with raptor conservation, and the ability of raptors to control the pests of agricultural crops has not been previously quantified, these results suggest that translocating New Zealand falcons into vineyards has potential for both the conservation of this species, and for providing biological control services to agriculture

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:26:20Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 OLIVEIRA_JUNIOR_Paulo_2012.pdf: 2558678 bytes, checksum: a031764ca6a58411f3a5fd0752aac91f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-06-28 / Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos / Several critically endangered species and subspecies have been saved from extinction in recent years by Ex Situ conservation strategies. However, captive populations are generally small and exposed to the effects of genetic drift, inbreeding and founder effects. Thus, a major challenge for long-term reproduction of these animals is to reduce the loss of heterozygosity and of allelic diversity. The genetic management can guide the matings to maintain the genetic variation as high as possible in the population. It can be achieved by calculating the genetic distance between the specimens, which is performed using molecular biology techniques. The Black-fronted Piping-Guan, Aburria jacutinga (Aves, Cracidae), is an endemic bird of the Atlantic Forest that is threatened of extinction due to the drastic destruction of this biome and the heavy hunting pressure. Among the suggested conservation actions for this species are the development of an Ex Situ conservation program with the goal of making reintroductions in areas where it has become extinct, as well as the maintenance of these captivity stocks controlled by a studbook. Here we have genotyped and analyzed 146 individuals from the five main breeding facilities. The results demonstrated five genetically differentiated populations of Black-fronted Piping-Guan, but their levels of genetic variability were very similar. However when these levels are compared with other species, the data suggest that the genetic variation is lower than desirable to reach the objectives proposed by the Ex Situ conservation programs. Pairing tables and genetic rankings were constructed and indicated kinship and levels of genetic variability of each bird. It was possible to identify the best pairs to be mated and individuals that were adequate for reintroductions. / Diversas espécies e subespécies criticamente ameaçadas foram salvas da extinção nos últimos anos por meio de estratégias de conservação Ex Situ. Porém, as populações de cativeiro são geralmente pequenas, e quanto menor uma população, mais exposta ela se torna aos efeitos da deriva genética, endocruzamento e efeitos fundadores. Assim, um dos grandes desafios para a reprodução em longo prazo desses animais é amenizar a perda de diversidade alélica e heterozigose. O manejo genético pode orientar os acasalamentos de maneira a manter na população a maior variação genética possível através do cálculo da distância genética entre os espécimes, que é realizado por técnicas de biologia molecular. A jacutinga, Aburria jacutinga (Aves, Cracidae), é uma ave endêmica da Mata Atlântica que está ameaçada de extinção devido à drástica destruição deste bioma e à forte pressão de caça. Dentre as ações de conservação sugeridas para esta espécie estão o desenvolvimento de um programa de conservação Ex Situ visando a reintrodução em áreas nas quais ela se tornou extinta e a manutenção desses estoques em cativeiro controlados por um studbook. Foram genotipados e analisados 146 indivíduos oriundos de cativeiro. Os resultados demonstram 5 populações diferenciadas geneticamente de jacutinga, mas seus níveis de variabilidade genética são bastante semelhantes. Entretanto quando esses níveis são comparados com outras espécies, os dados sugerem que a variação genética está abaixo do desejável para se alcançar os objetivos propostos pelos programas de conservação Ex Situ. Tabelas de pareamento e rankings genéticos foram construídos e indicam as relações de parentesco e níveis de variabilidade genética de cada ave. Com eles foi possível apontar os melhores pares a serem acasalados e os indivíduos que estão aptos a serem reintroduzidos.