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Os tratamentos convencionais para carcinoma medular de tireóide (CMT) metastático são insatisfatórios. Tanto a quimioterapia quanto a radioterapia são pouco eficazes para a doença avançada. Portanto, a terapia gênica é uma promissora opção. Trabalhos de construção de vetores plasmidiais ou adenovirais específicos para cultura de células de carcinoma medular de tireóide e/ou animais têm demonstrado resultados encorajadores, conseguindo significativa redução do tumor. O objetivo deste trabalho foi construir e avaliar a eficácia do plasmídio pTCPtkevIL-12 contendo o gene da timidina quinase (HSV-tk) e da interleucina 12 otimizada/evolved (evIL-12), ambos sob controle do promotor da calcitonina modificado (TCP), visando terapia gênica do CMT. A associação entre um gene ?suicida? (TK) e um gene imunomodulador (IL12) é sabidamente sinérgica, o que motivou o emprego destes dois genes no vetor terapêutico. Por melhoramento genético, obteve-se recentemente a IL-12 otimizada/evolved, com elevada capacidade em induzir resposta imune. O promotor TCP é mais forte e mais específico que o promotor de calcitonina natural , e já foi usado em diversos trabalhos em CMT. Para determinar a atividade biológica das interleucinas 12 (evIL-12 e mIL-12), os sobrenadantes das culturas de células TT transfectadas foram utilizados para avaliar proliferação linfocitária e estimulação de células dendríticas (DCs). As células TT (carcinoma medular humano de tireóide) foram transfectadas com o plasmídio pTCPtkevIL-12 ou pTCPmIL-12 (plasmídio com o gene da IL-12 murina, sob controle do promotor TCP). A proliferação linfocitária foi quantificada por citometria de fluxo e a diferenciação de linfócitos T para um padrão Th1 foi verificada através da dosagem de IFN-? e IL-4 por ELISA. A avaliação do perfil fenotípico das DCs, cultivadas com sobrenadante contendo mIL-12 ou evIL-12 durante a diferenciação, foi feita através de marcação com anticorpos das moléculas de membrana marcadoras de maturação CD80, CD83, CD86 e CD40, com leitura também por citometria de fluxo. Também foi avaliada e comprovada a capacidade do plasmídio pTCPevIL-12 de promover apoptose induzida pelo sistema suicida timidina quinase/ganciclovir, nas células TT transfectadas. Os experimentos de proliferação linfocitária verificaram que ambas IL-12 promoveram intensa proliferação linfocitária, em similar magnitude. A principal função da IL12, todavia, não é estimular proliferação linfocitária, mas sim, induzir fortemente diferenciação para Th1, fundamental para uma eficiente resposta anti-tumoral. Foi observado que ambas IL-12 proporcionaram forte resposta Th1. Porém, a evIL-12 mostrou-se superior à mIL-12 na diferenciação dos linfócitos T para o padrão Th1. Os experimentos que avaliaram a capacidade da IL-12 maturar DCs diferenciadas, mostraram um aumento na expressão de CD40 nas DCs sob estímulo de ambas IL-12, porém a expressão foi discretamente maior com evIL-12 que com mIL-12 . Não foi observada alteração na expressão das outras proteínas marcadoras de maturação (CD80, CD83, CD86). Comparando-se o sobrenadante das células TT transfectadas com o plasmídio pTCPtkevIL-12 antes e após adição de GCV, verificou-se que ele se tornou mais eficiente para induzir expressão de CD40 nas células dendríticas após a adição do GCV. O incremento de expressão de CD40 nas DCs após tratamento com GCV poderia explicar, ao menos em parte, o efeito anti-tumoral sinérgico observado com a expressão simultânea dos genes timidina quinase e IL-12, já descritos em estudos in vivo, na literatura. Considerando-se que a evIL-12 mostrou-se mais eficiente em promover diferenciação dos linfócitos T para padrão Th1 e em promover uma maturação/ativação de melhor qualidade das células dendríticas diferenciadas (maior expressão de CD40), poderia-se afirmar que esta IL- 12 é extremamente imunogênica, superior inclusive à IL-12 murina , a única utilizada até o momento em terapia gênica de CMT. Os resultados satisfatórios alcançados neste trabalho oferecem perspectivas de aplicação futura ao plasmídio terapêutico pTCPtkevIL-12 para uso em terapia gênica em CMT. O plasmídio poderia ser utilizado em aplicação intra-tumoral e em estimulação de células dendríticas. A vacinoterapia com células dendríticas estimuladas com sobrenadante de células TT transfectadas com pTCPtkevIL-12 e tratadas com ganciclovir, devido a elevada expressão de CD40, pode ser uma esperança de um tratamento mais eficaz das metástases do CMT. Diversos estudos afirmam haver uma correlação direta entre maior expressão de CD40 e maior regressão do tumor primário e das metástases. / Present treatments of advanced and metastatic medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC) are unsatisfactory. Tissue-specific cancer gene therapy is a promising alternative approach. IL-12 gene is a good citokyne to be used in gene therapy because it appears to be the most effective immunomodulatory gene. Literature data shows synergism in the association of two antitumor methods: suicide gene thymidine kinase (HSV-tk) and interleukin genes; therefore, they should ideally be together in the vector. The evolved interleukin12, obtained by DNA shuffling, is believed to elicit more antitumoral immune response than the human IL-12. None of them has been tested in MTC, only the murine IL-12 has been employed in MTC gene therapy. To explore a more efficient multi-gene antitumor treatment, development and evaluation of a plasmid expressing both herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase type 1 (HSVtk) and evolved interleukin-12 (evIL-12) under the control of modified calcitonin promoter (TCP) were done in this study. TCP promoter is more specific and efficient than the natural calcitonin promoter CT/CGRP, and has already been used in several studies. To verify IL-12 biological activity, lymphocyte proliferation and dendritic cell stimulation after IL-12 were studied. TT cells (human MTC) were transfected by pTCPtkevIL-12 plasmid or by pTCPmIL-12 (plasmid containing murine IL-12 gene, under control of TCP promoter). Lymphocyte proliferation was analysed by flow cytometry, and Th1 response was assessed by IFN-? and IL-4 ELISA measurement. The phenothypic analysis of dendritic cells (DCs) by flow cytometry was based on the expression of the maturative surface markers CD80, CD83, CD86 and CD40. Also, plasmid pTCPtkevIL-12 ability to promote TT transfected cells apoptosis, through the suicide system HSV-tk/ganciclovir, was evaluated and confirmed. Both IL-12 elicited similar intense lymphocyte proliferation. Nevertheless, the main IL-12 function is not to stimulate lymphocyte proliferation but induce Th1 immune response, which is essential for efficient anti-tumour response. Both IL-12, showed great Th1 response; however fortunately, ev-IL12 was superior to mIL-12 in promoting T cell Th1 response. Flow cytometry analysis of DCs revealed significant higher expression of CD40 surface molecule after differentiated DCs were exposed to TT transfected cells, either with pTCPtkevIL-12 or pTCPmIL-12, supernatants. DCs stimulated with supernatants containing evIL-12 were 36.91% CD40+, whereas when stimulated by supernatants containing mIL-12 were 14.74% CD40+. The other maturative markers (CD80, CD83, CD86) remained with the same expression level. Moreover, TT pTCPtkevIL-12- transfected cells supernatants, showed a even higher ability of increasing CD40 expression in DCs after treatment with GCV. At least partially, this increase in dendritic cells CD40 expression could explain the synergism observed with the simultaneous expression of thymidine kinase and interleukin genes. Outstanding lymphocyte proliferation and dendritic cell stimulation were achieved by the evIL-12 secreted in the supernatants, confirming that this interleukin 12 is really very potent. The good results achieved by the present study justify further experiments with this therapeutic plasmid. It could be used intra-tumorally and to stimulate/mature dendritic cells. Vaccine with DCs stimulated by TT pTCPtkevIL-12-transfected cells after GCV treatment supernatants, due to higher CD40 expression, could be very suitable for the treatment of MTC metastasis. Several studies show better primary tumor and metastasis regression in the presence of high levels of CD40 expression.

Os tratamentos convencionais para carcinoma medular de tireóide (CMT) metastático são insatisfatórios. Tanto a quimioterapia quanto a radioterapia são pouco eficazes para a doença avançada. Portanto, a terapia gênica é uma promissora opção. Trabalhos de construção de vetores plasmidiais ou adenovirais específicos para cultura de células de carcinoma medular de tireóide e/ou animais têm demonstrado resultados encorajadores, conseguindo significativa redução do tumor. O objetivo deste trabalho foi construir e avaliar a eficácia do plasmídio pTCPtkevIL-12 contendo o gene da timidina quinase (HSV-tk) e da interleucina 12 otimizada/evolved (evIL-12), ambos sob controle do promotor da calcitonina modificado (TCP), visando terapia gênica do CMT. A associação entre um gene ?suicida? (TK) e um gene imunomodulador (IL12) é sabidamente sinérgica, o que motivou o emprego destes dois genes no vetor terapêutico. Por melhoramento genético, obteve-se recentemente a IL-12 otimizada/evolved, com elevada capacidade em induzir resposta imune. O promotor TCP é mais forte e mais específico que o promotor de calcitonina natural , e já foi usado em diversos trabalhos em CMT. Para determinar a atividade biológica das interleucinas 12 (evIL-12 e mIL-12), os sobrenadantes das culturas de células TT transfectadas foram utilizados para avaliar proliferação linfocitária e estimulação de células dendríticas (DCs). As células TT (carcinoma medular humano de tireóide) foram transfectadas com o plasmídio pTCPtkevIL-12 ou pTCPmIL-12 (plasmídio com o gene da IL-12 murina, sob controle do promotor TCP). A proliferação linfocitária foi quantificada por citometria de fluxo e a diferenciação de linfócitos T para um padrão Th1 foi verificada através da dosagem de IFN-? e IL-4 por ELISA. A avaliação do perfil fenotípico das DCs, cultivadas com sobrenadante contendo mIL-12 ou evIL-12 durante a diferenciação, foi feita através de marcação com anticorpos das moléculas de membrana marcadoras de maturação CD80, CD83, CD86 e CD40, com leitura também por citometria de fluxo. Também foi avaliada e comprovada a capacidade do plasmídio pTCPevIL-12 de promover apoptose induzida pelo sistema suicida timidina quinase/ganciclovir, nas células TT transfectadas. Os experimentos de proliferação linfocitária verificaram que ambas IL-12 promoveram intensa proliferação linfocitária, em similar magnitude. A principal função da IL12, todavia, não é estimular proliferação linfocitária, mas sim, induzir fortemente diferenciação para Th1, fundamental para uma eficiente resposta anti-tumoral. Foi observado que ambas IL-12 proporcionaram forte resposta Th1. Porém, a evIL-12 mostrou-se superior à mIL-12 na diferenciação dos linfócitos T para o padrão Th1. Os experimentos que avaliaram a capacidade da IL-12 maturar DCs diferenciadas, mostraram um aumento na expressão de CD40 nas DCs sob estímulo de ambas IL-12, porém a expressão foi discretamente maior com evIL-12 que com mIL-12 . Não foi observada alteração na expressão das outras proteínas marcadoras de maturação (CD80, CD83, CD86). Comparando-se o sobrenadante das células TT transfectadas com o plasmídio pTCPtkevIL-12 antes e após adição de GCV, verificou-se que ele se tornou mais eficiente para induzir expressão de CD40 nas células dendríticas após a adição do GCV. O incremento de expressão de CD40 nas DCs após tratamento com GCV poderia explicar, ao menos em parte, o efeito anti-tumoral sinérgico observado com a expressão simultânea dos genes timidina quinase e IL-12, já descritos em estudos in vivo, na literatura. Considerando-se que a evIL-12 mostrou-se mais eficiente em promover diferenciação dos linfócitos T para padrão Th1 e em promover uma maturação/ativação de melhor qualidade das células dendríticas diferenciadas (maior expressão de CD40), poderia-se afirmar que esta IL- 12 é extremamente imunogênica, superior inclusive à IL-12 murina , a única utilizada até o momento em terapia gênica de CMT. Os resultados satisfatórios alcançados neste trabalho oferecem perspectivas de aplicação futura ao plasmídio terapêutico pTCPtkevIL-12 para uso em terapia gênica em CMT. O plasmídio poderia ser utilizado em aplicação intra-tumoral e em estimulação de células dendríticas. A vacinoterapia com células dendríticas estimuladas com sobrenadante de células TT transfectadas com pTCPtkevIL-12 e tratadas com ganciclovir, devido a elevada expressão de CD40, pode ser uma esperança de um tratamento mais eficaz das metástases do CMT. Diversos estudos afirmam haver uma correlação direta entre maior expressão de CD40 e maior regressão do tumor primário e das metástases. / Present treatments of advanced and metastatic medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC) are unsatisfactory. Tissue-specific cancer gene therapy is a promising alternative approach. IL-12 gene is a good citokyne to be used in gene therapy because it appears to be the most effective immunomodulatory gene. Literature data shows synergism in the association of two antitumor methods: suicide gene thymidine kinase (HSV-tk) and interleukin genes; therefore, they should ideally be together in the vector. The evolved interleukin12, obtained by DNA shuffling, is believed to elicit more antitumoral immune response than the human IL-12. None of them has been tested in MTC, only the murine IL-12 has been employed in MTC gene therapy. To explore a more efficient multi-gene antitumor treatment, development and evaluation of a plasmid expressing both herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase type 1 (HSVtk) and evolved interleukin-12 (evIL-12) under the control of modified calcitonin promoter (TCP) were done in this study. TCP promoter is more specific and efficient than the natural calcitonin promoter CT/CGRP, and has already been used in several studies. To verify IL-12 biological activity, lymphocyte proliferation and dendritic cell stimulation after IL-12 were studied. TT cells (human MTC) were transfected by pTCPtkevIL-12 plasmid or by pTCPmIL-12 (plasmid containing murine IL-12 gene, under control of TCP promoter). Lymphocyte proliferation was analysed by flow cytometry, and Th1 response was assessed by IFN-? and IL-4 ELISA measurement. The phenothypic analysis of dendritic cells (DCs) by flow cytometry was based on the expression of the maturative surface markers CD80, CD83, CD86 and CD40. Also, plasmid pTCPtkevIL-12 ability to promote TT transfected cells apoptosis, through the suicide system HSV-tk/ganciclovir, was evaluated and confirmed. Both IL-12 elicited similar intense lymphocyte proliferation. Nevertheless, the main IL-12 function is not to stimulate lymphocyte proliferation but induce Th1 immune response, which is essential for efficient anti-tumour response. Both IL-12, showed great Th1 response; however fortunately, ev-IL12 was superior to mIL-12 in promoting T cell Th1 response. Flow cytometry analysis of DCs revealed significant higher expression of CD40 surface molecule after differentiated DCs were exposed to TT transfected cells, either with pTCPtkevIL-12 or pTCPmIL-12, supernatants. DCs stimulated with supernatants containing evIL-12 were 36.91% CD40+, whereas when stimulated by supernatants containing mIL-12 were 14.74% CD40+. The other maturative markers (CD80, CD83, CD86) remained with the same expression level. Moreover, TT pTCPtkevIL-12- transfected cells supernatants, showed a even higher ability of increasing CD40 expression in DCs after treatment with GCV. At least partially, this increase in dendritic cells CD40 expression could explain the synergism observed with the simultaneous expression of thymidine kinase and interleukin genes. Outstanding lymphocyte proliferation and dendritic cell stimulation were achieved by the evIL-12 secreted in the supernatants, confirming that this interleukin 12 is really very potent. The good results achieved by the present study justify further experiments with this therapeutic plasmid. It could be used intra-tumorally and to stimulate/mature dendritic cells. Vaccine with DCs stimulated by TT pTCPtkevIL-12-transfected cells after GCV treatment supernatants, due to higher CD40 expression, could be very suitable for the treatment of MTC metastasis. Several studies show better primary tumor and metastasis regression in the presence of high levels of CD40 expression.

La résistance du virus de l’herpès simplex (VHS) aux antiviraux est un problème courant chez les individus immunosupprimés. Des mutations au sein du gène de la thymidine kinase (TK) virale sont principalement à l’origine de la résistance au traitement de première ligne, i.e. les analogues des nucléosides. La cible ultime de tous les antiviraux anti-herpétique demeure cependant l’ADN polymérase (pol) virale. Ces deux gènes viraux (TK et ADN pol) démontrent un certain degré de polymorphisme génétique et il peut devenir difficile d’identifier avec certitude les mutations responsables de la résistance aux antiviraux. Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse de Doctorat démontrent le développement de nouvelles méthodes afin d’établir un lien entre l’apparition de mutations au niveau de gênes viraux et un phénotype de résistance particulier. Un système d’expression du gène de la TK virale chez le parasite Leishmania et un ensemble de cosmides et de plasmides recombinants permettant de générer des virus ADN pol mutants ont été mis au point. Ces nouvelles stratégies nous ont permis de caractériser les mutations virales impliquées dans la résistance aux antiviraux. / Drug resistant HSV isolates are responsible form substantial morbidity among immunocompromised subjects. The genetic basis for resistance to nucleoside analogs such as acyclovir (ACV) have been mapped to point mutations in the viral thymidine kinase (TK) gene while mutations within the viral DNA pol gene, the main target for all anti-herpetic drug actually available, could lead to a multidrug resistance phenotype. However, the distinction between viral mutations (TK and DNA pol) involved in antiviral resistance or part of viral polymorphism can be difficult to evaluate with current methodologies. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this research project is thus to evaluate the role of particular mutations within the HSV TK and DNA pol gene with regard to drug-resistance patterns and viral fitness, by designing new gene expression systems. METHODS: The protozoan parasite Leishmania stably transfected with a TK expression vector (pSP72αNEOα) was used as an heterologous system to evaluate the role of several different point mutations within the coding region of the TK gene in conferring resistance to nucleoside analogs. Susceptibility of TK-expressing parasites to nucleoside analogs can thus be tested very easily by a simple measurement of the optic density of cultures grown in the presence or in the absence of the drug. Finally, a set of overlapping viral cosmids and plasmids for the rapid generation of recombinant HSV-1 DNA pol mutants have been developed. RESULTS: Expression of the TK gene from ACV-susceptible clinical isolates resulted in Leishmania susceptibility to the antiviral, whereas expression of a TK gene with frameshift mutations or nucleotide substitutions from ACV-resistant isolates gave rise to parasites with high levels of antiviral resistance. Twenty HSV-1 recombinants with single or dual mutations within the DNA pol gene were successfully generated with the cosmid/plasmid based approach. Mutations within the central part of the enzyme’s catalytic domain (regions II and VI) were associated with resistance to ACV, FOS, and ADV, whereas mutations inserted within extremities (δ-region C, I, V, and VII) were mostly related to the replicative activity of the enzyme. CONCLUSION: Such new strategies provide an easy, reliable, and sensitive means of evaluating the functional role of viral mutations which should translate in improved management of drug-resistant HSV infections.

Mass spectrometry is being increasingly used in biomarker research mainly due to its ability to achieve high selectivity coupled with high sensitivity. This dissertation focuses on quantitative mass spectrometric investigations of two protein biomarkers i.e. serum thymidine kinase 1 (TK1) and human osteopontin (OPN). First part of this research was focused on developing a liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for measuring the activity of TK1 in serum by monitoring the conversion of a TK1 specific exogenous substrate, 3’-deoxy-3’-fluorothymidine (FLT), to its mono-phosphorylated form 3’-deoxy-3’-fluorothymidine monophosphate (FLT-MP). A method to quantify FLT-MP on LC-MS/MS was developed and validated. The method was linear over the range of 2.5-2000 ng/mL with a mean correlation coefficient of 0.9935. Using the developed method, serum TK1 activity was measured in serum from hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients and age-matched controls under standardized conditions. A sub-population of the HCC patient samples showed an almost 20-fold enhanced TK1 activity compared to the controls. A method was developed and validated for quantifying human osteopontin from plasma using immunoaffinity isolations coupled with microflow liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (MFLC-MS/MS). A biologically relevant tryptic peptide ‘GDSVVYGLR’ which is unique to hOPN was identified and used as a signature peptide for this method. The method was validated over a range of 25-600 ng/mL. The performance of the method was compliant with USFDA validation guidance. In addition, a stable isotope labeled (SIL) peptide GDSVVYGLR* and an extended SIL peptide TYDGRGDSVV*YGLRSKSKKF’ were evaluated as internal standards (IS) to account for signature peptide digestion instability and variability. In the digestion variability studies, the use of extended SIL peptide as internal standard limited the total variability within ±30%. Alternatively, when SIL peptide was used as internal standard the variability ranged from -67.4% to +50.6 %. The applicability of the validated method was demonstrated by analyzing plasma samples obtained from 10 healthy individuals and 10 breast cancer patients. More than 9-fold increase in the mean plasma hOPN concentration was seen in 30% of the breast cancer patient samples (n=10) in comparison to the healthy volunteer samples. In a proof of concept investigation, a stable isotope labeled signature peptide was evaluated as an internal standard to compensate for immunocapture variability during quantification of human osteopontin (hOPN) by immunoaffinity coupled LC-MS/MS. Immunocapture variability was induced by varying the antibody amount per well. The immunocapture variability ranged from -80.9 % to +77.0 % when the IS was added after immunocapture and from -37.5% to +20.3% when the IS was added before immunocapture. The lower variability demonstrates the ability of SIL-IS peptide to compensate for variation during immunocapture.

O melanoma maligno é um tipo de câncer com grande risco de produzir metástases e com altas taxas de mortalidade resultantes de diagnósticos tardios e falta de tratamentos eficazes. Ao longo dos últimos anos, a terapia gênica voltada para o câncer e o desenvolvimento de métodos capazes de visualizar processos moleculares e celulares ao longo da terapia, tem recebido especial atenção. Diante deste quadro, nossos objetivos foram utilizar o sistema de Tomografia por Emissão de Pósitrons (PET) para diagnosticar precocemente tumores e investigar a eficácia terapêutica de uma nova imunoterapia em um modelo animal de melanoma metastático. Visando atingir esses objetivos, padronizou-se a síntese e realizou-se o controle de qualidade do 9- [4-18F-fluoro-3-hidroximetil-butil) guanina, [18F] FHBG, considerado o padrão-ouro em estudos clínicos, para acompanhamento de terapia gênica por PET. Métodos: Sintetizou-se o [18F] FHBG, por substituição nucleofílica tipo 2 do precursor tosilato com [18F-] fluoreto de potássio /Kryptofix 2.2.2, seguido de desproteção com HCl 1 M e purificação por HPLC. A identidade química, pureza radioquímica e atividade específica do [18F] FHBG foram determinadas por Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Eficiência (CLAE). Introduziu-se o gene de timidina quinase (TK) com o vetor retroviral pCL-TK nas linhagens B16F10 (melanoma murino) e LLC (carcinoma de pulmão murino). Os estudos de captação in vitro dos radiotraçadores [18F] FHBG e [18F] FDG foram realizados nas linhagens celulares tumorais murinas transduzidas ou não com a proteína TK. Para os estudos in vivo, camundongos C57BL6 previamente inoculados intravenosamente com células de melanoma expressando a enzima TK, foram imageados subsequentemente utilizando os radiotraçadores [18F] FDG e [18F] FHBG. A eficácia da imunoterapia foi testada em modelo profilático e terapêutico animal de melanoma metastático. Resultados: O tempo de síntese total do [18F] FHBG variou entre 80-150 minutos. O rendimento radioquímico variou entre 1-4%, (n = 19) decaimento corrigido. A pureza radioquímica foi superior a 99% e a atividade específica variou entre 0,14GBq/μmoL-0,21GBq/μmoL. Com a introdução do gene timidina quinase (TK), obtiveram-se as linhagens repórter B16F10-TK e LLC-TK, para os estudos in vitro. As células B16F10 e LLC, expressando GFP foram utilizadas como linhagens controles. Estudos in vitro com o [18F] FHBG revelaram uma captação cerca de 4 vezes maior em células que expressam TK (B16-TK e LLC-TK) em comparação com as células controle GFP. O [18F] FDG apenas captou cerca de duas vezes mais em células TK do que em células que expressam GFP. A detecção de tumores em modelo animal de metástase pulmonar com o [18F] FDG ocorreu a partir de 15 dias do estabelecimento das lesões. No entanto, nos estudos in vivo com [18F] FHBG, houve captação apenas na região intestinal, durante as três semanas em que os animais foram acompanhados. A imunoterapia com células tratadas pela combinação de p19Arf e IFNβ, em camundongos C57BL6 com metástase pulmonar, conferiu redução do tamanho dos focos metastáticos aos animais tratados. Conclusões: Neste trabalho padronizou-se a síntese manual do [18F] FHBG, o qual foi avaliado em estudos in vitro e in vivo. Os estudos in vitro confirmaram a especificidade do [18F] FHBG no monitoramento da expressão de HSV1-tk em linhagens celulares. No entanto, o [18F] FHBG não se acumulou nas lesões metastáticas in vivo e estudos posteriores serão necessários para uma melhor caracterização utilizando o [18F] FHBG. O resultado do tratamento combinado de p19Arf e IFNβ foi promissor para o tratamento de lesões metastáticas. / Malignant melanoma is a type of cancer with a great risk of producing metastases and with high mortality rates resulting from late diagnosis and lack of effective treatments. Over the past few years, directed gene therapy for cancer and the development of methods to visualize molecular and cellular processes throughout therapy, have received special attention. In this context, our aim was to use the Positron Emission Tomography (PET) system, as a tool, for early detection of tumors and investigate the therapeutic efficacy of a new immunotherapy in an animal model of metastatic melanoma. To achieving these goals, the synthesis of [18F] FHBG, the gold standard in clinical studies for monitoring gene therapy by PET, was standardized and the quality control was performed. We also present the results of in vitro uptake and in vivo evaluation of [18F] FHBG, compared to [18F] FDG, the most commonly used radiopharmaceutical for diagnosis in oncology by PET. The vaccine was derived from transduced B16F10-TK cells with the adenoviral vectors AdRGDPGp19Arf and AdRGDPGIFNβ. Methods: [18F] FHBG was synthesized by type 2 nucleophilic radiofluorination of a tosylate precursor with [18F-] potassium fluoride / Kryptofix 2.2.2, followed by deprotection with 1N HCl and purification by HPLC. The chemical identity, radiochemical purity and specific activity of [18F] FHBG were determined by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). The thymidine kinase (TK) gene was introduced with the pCL-TK retroviral vector into the B16F10 (murine melanoma) and LLC (murine lung carcinoma) lines. In vitro uptake studies of [18F] FHBG and [18F] FDG were performed on cell lines transduced or not with TK protein. For in vivo studies, C57BL6 mice, previously injected with HSV1tk expressing tumors, were subsequently imaged using the [18F] FDG and [18F] FHBG radiotracers. The efficacy of immunotherapy was tested in a prophylactic and therapeutic animal model of metastatic melanoma. Results: The total synthesis time of [18F] FHBG ranged from 80-150 min. The radiochemical yield ranged from 1-4%, (n = 19) corrected decay. Radiochemical purity was greater than 99% and the specific activity ranged from 0.14GBq / μmoL- 0.21GBq / μmoL. With the introduction of the thymidine kinase (TK) gene, the B16F10-TK and LLC-TK reporter lines were obtained for in vitro studies, B16F10 cells and LLC, expressing GFP, were used as controls. In vitro studies with [18F] FHBG revealed about 4-fold uptake in TK-expressing cells (B16-TK and LLC-TK) compared to GFP control cells. [18F] FDG binds only about twice as much in TK cells as in cells expressing GFP. The detection of tumors in an animal model of pulmonary metastasis with [18F] FDG occurred 15 days after lesion establishment. However, the in vivo studies with [18F] FHBG, the uptake was only found in the intestinal region, over the 3 weeks in which the mice were followed. Immunotherapy with cells treated by the combination of p19Arf and IFNβ, in C57BL6 mice with pulmonary metastasis, reduced the size of the metastatic foci in treated animals. Conclusions: In this study we demonstrate the standardization of [18F] FHBG synthesis and its use in in vitro and in vivo. The in vitro studies have confirmed the specificity of [18F] FHBG to monitor HSV1-tk expression in cell lines. However, [18F] FHBG did not accumulate in the metastatic lesions in vivo and further studies will be required for a better characterization using [18F] FHBG. The outcome of the combined treatment of p19Arf and IFNβ was promising for the treatment of metastatic lesions.

O melanoma maligno é um tipo de câncer com grande risco de produzir metástases e com altas taxas de mortalidade resultantes de diagnósticos tardios e falta de tratamentos eficazes. Ao longo dos últimos anos, a terapia gênica voltada para o câncer e o desenvolvimento de métodos capazes de visualizar processos moleculares e celulares ao longo da terapia, tem recebido especial atenção. Diante deste quadro, nossos objetivos foram utilizar o sistema de Tomografia por Emissão de Pósitrons (PET) para diagnosticar precocemente tumores e investigar a eficácia terapêutica de uma nova imunoterapia em um modelo animal de melanoma metastático. Visando atingir esses objetivos, padronizou-se a síntese e realizou-se o controle de qualidade do 9- [4-18F-fluoro-3-hidroximetil-butil) guanina, [18F] FHBG, considerado o padrão-ouro em estudos clínicos, para acompanhamento de terapia gênica por PET. Métodos: Sintetizou-se o [18F] FHBG, por substituição nucleofílica tipo 2 do precursor tosilato com [18F-] fluoreto de potássio /Kryptofix 2.2.2, seguido de desproteção com HCl 1 M e purificação por HPLC. A identidade química, pureza radioquímica e atividade específica do [18F] FHBG foram determinadas por Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Eficiência (CLAE). Introduziu-se o gene de timidina quinase (TK) com o vetor retroviral pCL-TK nas linhagens B16F10 (melanoma murino) e LLC (carcinoma de pulmão murino). Os estudos de captação in vitro dos radiotraçadores [18F] FHBG e [18F] FDG foram realizados nas linhagens celulares tumorais murinas transduzidas ou não com a proteína TK. Para os estudos in vivo, camundongos C57BL6 previamente inoculados intravenosamente com células de melanoma expressando a enzima TK, foram imageados subsequentemente utilizando os radiotraçadores [18F] FDG e [18F] FHBG. A eficácia da imunoterapia foi testada em modelo profilático e terapêutico animal de melanoma metastático. Resultados: O tempo de síntese total do [18F] FHBG variou entre 80-150 minutos. O rendimento radioquímico variou entre 1-4%, (n = 19) decaimento corrigido. A pureza radioquímica foi superior a 99% e a atividade específica variou entre 0,14GBq/μmoL-0,21GBq/μmoL. Com a introdução do gene timidina quinase (TK), obtiveram-se as linhagens repórter B16F10-TK e LLC-TK, para os estudos in vitro. As células B16F10 e LLC, expressando GFP foram utilizadas como linhagens controles. Estudos in vitro com o [18F] FHBG revelaram uma captação cerca de 4 vezes maior em células que expressam TK (B16-TK e LLC-TK) em comparação com as células controle GFP. O [18F] FDG apenas captou cerca de duas vezes mais em células TK do que em células que expressam GFP. A detecção de tumores em modelo animal de metástase pulmonar com o [18F] FDG ocorreu a partir de 15 dias do estabelecimento das lesões. No entanto, nos estudos in vivo com [18F] FHBG, houve captação apenas na região intestinal, durante as três semanas em que os animais foram acompanhados. A imunoterapia com células tratadas pela combinação de p19Arf e IFNβ, em camundongos C57BL6 com metástase pulmonar, conferiu redução do tamanho dos focos metastáticos aos animais tratados. Conclusões: Neste trabalho padronizou-se a síntese manual do [18F] FHBG, o qual foi avaliado em estudos in vitro e in vivo. Os estudos in vitro confirmaram a especificidade do [18F] FHBG no monitoramento da expressão de HSV1-tk em linhagens celulares. No entanto, o [18F] FHBG não se acumulou nas lesões metastáticas in vivo e estudos posteriores serão necessários para uma melhor caracterização utilizando o [18F] FHBG. O resultado do tratamento combinado de p19Arf e IFNβ foi promissor para o tratamento de lesões metastáticas. / Malignant melanoma is a type of cancer with a great risk of producing metastases and with high mortality rates resulting from late diagnosis and lack of effective treatments. Over the past few years, directed gene therapy for cancer and the development of methods to visualize molecular and cellular processes throughout therapy, have received special attention. In this context, our aim was to use the Positron Emission Tomography (PET) system, as a tool, for early detection of tumors and investigate the therapeutic efficacy of a new immunotherapy in an animal model of metastatic melanoma. To achieving these goals, the synthesis of [18F] FHBG, the gold standard in clinical studies for monitoring gene therapy by PET, was standardized and the quality control was performed. We also present the results of in vitro uptake and in vivo evaluation of [18F] FHBG, compared to [18F] FDG, the most commonly used radiopharmaceutical for diagnosis in oncology by PET. The vaccine was derived from transduced B16F10-TK cells with the adenoviral vectors AdRGDPGp19Arf and AdRGDPGIFNβ. Methods: [18F] FHBG was synthesized by type 2 nucleophilic radiofluorination of a tosylate precursor with [18F-] potassium fluoride / Kryptofix 2.2.2, followed by deprotection with 1N HCl and purification by HPLC. The chemical identity, radiochemical purity and specific activity of [18F] FHBG were determined by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). The thymidine kinase (TK) gene was introduced with the pCL-TK retroviral vector into the B16F10 (murine melanoma) and LLC (murine lung carcinoma) lines. In vitro uptake studies of [18F] FHBG and [18F] FDG were performed on cell lines transduced or not with TK protein. For in vivo studies, C57BL6 mice, previously injected with HSV1tk expressing tumors, were subsequently imaged using the [18F] FDG and [18F] FHBG radiotracers. The efficacy of immunotherapy was tested in a prophylactic and therapeutic animal model of metastatic melanoma. Results: The total synthesis time of [18F] FHBG ranged from 80-150 min. The radiochemical yield ranged from 1-4%, (n = 19) corrected decay. Radiochemical purity was greater than 99% and the specific activity ranged from 0.14GBq / μmoL- 0.21GBq / μmoL. With the introduction of the thymidine kinase (TK) gene, the B16F10-TK and LLC-TK reporter lines were obtained for in vitro studies, B16F10 cells and LLC, expressing GFP, were used as controls. In vitro studies with [18F] FHBG revealed about 4-fold uptake in TK-expressing cells (B16-TK and LLC-TK) compared to GFP control cells. [18F] FDG binds only about twice as much in TK cells as in cells expressing GFP. The detection of tumors in an animal model of pulmonary metastasis with [18F] FDG occurred 15 days after lesion establishment. However, the in vivo studies with [18F] FHBG, the uptake was only found in the intestinal region, over the 3 weeks in which the mice were followed. Immunotherapy with cells treated by the combination of p19Arf and IFNβ, in C57BL6 mice with pulmonary metastasis, reduced the size of the metastatic foci in treated animals. Conclusions: In this study we demonstrate the standardization of [18F] FHBG synthesis and its use in in vitro and in vivo. The in vitro studies have confirmed the specificity of [18F] FHBG to monitor HSV1-tk expression in cell lines. However, [18F] FHBG did not accumulate in the metastatic lesions in vivo and further studies will be required for a better characterization using [18F] FHBG. The outcome of the combined treatment of p19Arf and IFNβ was promising for the treatment of metastatic lesions.

Trypanosoma brucei causes African sleeping sickness in humans and Nagana in cattle. There are no vaccines available against the disease and the current treatment is also not satisfactory because of inefficacy and numerous side effects of the used drugs. T. brucei lacks de novo synthesis of purine nucleosides; hence it depends on the host to make its purine nucleotides. T. brucei has a high affinity adenosine kinase (TbAK), which phosphorylates adenosine, deoxyadenosine (dAdo), inosine and their analogs. RNAi experiments confirmed that TbAK is responsible for the salvage of dAdo and the toxicity of its substrate analogs. Cell growth assays with the dAdo analogs, Ara-A and F-Ara-A, suggested that TbAK could be exploited for drug development against the disease. It has previously been shown that when T. brucei cells were cultivated in the presence of 1 mM deoxyadenosine (dAdo), they showed accumulation of dATP and depletion of ATP nucleotides. The altered nucleotide levels were toxic to the trypanosomes. However the salvage of dAdo in trypanosomes was dramatically reduced below 0.5 mM dAdo. Radiolabeled dAdo experiments showed that it (especially at low concentrations) is cleaved to adenine and converted to ATP. The recombinant methylthioadenosine phosphorylase (TbMTAP) cleaved methylthioadenosine, dAdo and adenosine into adenine and sugar-1-P in a phosphate-dependent manner. The trypanosomes became more sensitive to dAdo when TbMTAP was down-regulated in RNAi experiments. The RNAi experiments confirmed that trypanosomes avoid dATP accumulation by cleaving dAdo. The TbMTAP cleavage-resistant nucleoside analogs, FANA-A and Ara-A, successfully cured T. brucei-infected mice. The DNA building block dTTP can be synthesized either via thymidylate synthase in the de novo pathway or via thymidine kinase (TK) by salvage synthesis. We found that T. brucei and three other parasites contain a tandem TK where the gene sequence was repeated twice or four times in a single open reading frame. The recombinant T. brucei TK, which belongs to the TK1 family, showed broad substrate specificity. The enzyme phosphorylated the pyrimidine nucleosides thymidine and deoxyuridine, as well as the purine nucleosides deoxyinosine and deoxyguanosine. When the repeated sequences of the tandem TbTK were expressed individually as domains, only domain 2 was active. However, the protein could not dimerize and had a 5-fold reduced affinity to its pyrimidine substrates but a similar turnover number as the full-length enzyme. The expressed domain 1 was inactive and sequence analysis revealed that some active residues, which are needed for substrate binding and catalysis, are absent. Generally, the TK1 family enzymes form dimers or tetramers and the quaternary structure is linked to the affinity for the substrates. The covalently linked inactive domain-1 helps domain-2 to form a pseudodimer for the efficient binding of substrates. In addition, we discovered a repetition of an 89-bp sequence in both domain 1 and domain 2, which suggests a genetic exchange between the two domains. T. brucei is very dependent on de novo synthesis via ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) for the production of dNTPs. Even though T. brucei RNR belongs to the class Ia RNR family and contains an ATP-binding cone, it lacks inhibition by dATP. The mechanism behind the RNR activation by ATP and inactivation by dATP was a puzzle for a long time in the ~50 years of RNR research. We carried out oligomerization studies on mouse and E. coli RNRs, which belongs to the same family as T. brucei, to get an understanding of the molecular mechanism behind overall activity regulation. We found that the oligomerization status of RNRs and overall activity mechanism are interlinked with each other. / Targeting the nucleotide metabolism of the mammalian pathogen Trypanosoma brucei.

Interferons (IFNs) are a class of structurally related proteins first discovered to be produced by virus-infected cells. By now, several other inducing agents have been described. IFNs exert multiple effects on cells exemplified by the establishment of an antiviral state, inhibition of cell proliferation and alteration of different immune reactions. In the present thesis the inhibition of cellular growth concentrated on effects in the early cell cycle have been studied. The human glioma cell line 251 MG was found to be blocked in the S phase of the cell cycle upon addition of IFN both to exponentially growing and growth-factor depleted, synchronized cells. Thymidine kinase and DNA-polymerase activities were reduced in parallel with the S phase effect. 2-5 oligo Anucleotides transfected into glioma cells lead to inhibition of cell growth, exponentially growing cells being blocked in the S phase as during IFN treatment. In contrast, synchronized, restimulated cells were blocked in the cellcycle phase where they resided at the time of transfection. As 2-5 oligo A synthetase activity was induced in the middle of the Gl phase, these results might indicate that the kinetics of expression of oligonucleotides after IFN additiondetermines the type of cell cycle block obtained in differenttumor cells. IFN inhibited preferentially proteins originating from newly synthesized mRNA in Sw 3T3 cells, c-mvc did not seem to be included among these proteins. In both cell systems c-myc expression was unaltered after IFN treatment. In clone T1 selected from the the Sw 3T3 cell line , c-mvc expression was uncoupled to growth and seemed to be growth factor independent. The change in c-myc expression in clone T1 compared to SW 3T3 cells did not render the cells sensitive to IFN. Hence, c-myc regulation does not seem to be the mechanism by which IFN regulates cell growth in this system. The proliferation marker KI-67 antigen was shown not to be causatively involved in growth inhibition of IFN. The reduced levels of the antigen was proposed to be a secondary effect caused by the G0/G1 arrest. / <p>Diss. (sammanfattning) Umeå : Umeå universitet, 1991, härtill 6 uppsatser</p> / digitalisering@umu

Trypanosoma brucei is a causative agent of African sleeping sickness. It is an extracellular parasite which circulates in the blood, lymph and eventually invades the central nervous system. There is a great need for new medicines against the disease and specific properties of nucleoside kinases in the pathogen can be exploited as targets for chemotherapy.  T. brucei contains a gene where two thymidine kinase sequences are fused into a single open reading frame. These types of tandem thymidine kinases were found only in different types of parasites, which made us to believe that it might be beneficial for them. Each thymidine kinase sequence in these tandem enzymes are here referred to as a domain. By cloning and expressing each domain from T. brucei separately, we found that domain 1 was inactive and domain 2 was as active as the full-length enzyme. T. brucei thymidine kinase phosphorylated the pyrimidine nucleosides thymidine and deoxyuridine and to some extent purine nucleosides like deoxyinosine and deoxyguanosine. Human thymidine kinase increases the affinity to its substrates when it forms oligomers. Similarly, the T. brucei two thymidine kinase sequences, which can be viewed as a pseudodimer, had a higher affinity to its substrates than domain 2 alone.  T. brucei lacks de novo purine biosynthesis and it is therefore dependent on salvaging the required purine nucleotides for RNA and DNA synthesis from the host. Purine salvage is considered as a target for drug development. It has been shown that in the presence of deoxyadenosine in the growth medium, the parasites accumulate high levels of dATP and the extensive phosphorylation of deoxyadenosine leads to depleted ATP pools. Initially, we wondered if deoxyadenosine could be used as a drug against T. brucei. However, we found that T. brucei is partially protected against deoxyadenosine because it was cleaved by the enzyme methylthioadenosine phosphorylase (MTAP) to adenine and ribose-1-phosphate. At higher concentration of deoxyadenosine, 3 the formed adenine was not efficiently salvaged into ATP and started to inhibit MTAP instead. The deoxyadenosine was then instead phosphorylated by adenosine kinase leading to accumulation of dATP. The MTAP reaction makes deoxyadenosine itself useless as a drug and instead we focused on finding analogues of deoxyadenosine or adenosine that were cleavage-resistant and at the same time good substrates of T. brucei adenosine kinase. Our best hit was then 9-(2-deoxy-2-fluoro-ß-D-arabinofuranosyl) adenine (FANA-A). An additional advantage of FANA-A as a drug was that it was taken up by the P1 nucleoside transporter family, which makes it useful also against multidrug resistant parasites that often have lost the P2 transporter function and take up their purines solely by the P1 transporter. In parallel with our study of nucleoside metabolism in T. brucei, we also have a collaboration project where we screen essential oils from plants which are used in traditional medicine. If the essential oils are active against the trypanosomes, we further analyze the different components in the oils to identify new drugs against African sleeping sickness. One such compound identified from the plant Smyrnium olusatrum is isofuranodiene, which inhibited T. brucei proliferation with an IC50 value of 3 μM.