Three experiments were conducted to examine the effect of association strength on TOT (tip-of-the-tongue states) and recall. Two hundred nineteen undergraduate students studied pictures and names of 24 imaginary animals that were presented on a large computer screen. The strength of association between the cue and target was manipulated by varying the number of times the picture and the name were presented simultaneously, while keeping the number of presentations for each picture or the target constant across conditions. After the study phase, participants were cued by each picture to recall the imaginary animal names. Participants were asked to rate their strength of TOT on a scale ranging 0 to 3 for each item if they could not think of the name at the moment. Participants also made subjective judgments as to how many times they saw the picture and name of the animal co-occur on the same screen at the study phase, and then they performed a recognition test at the end. The results indicated that the frequency and strength of TOTs linearly increased as a function of number of co-occurrences; the correlation between TOT strength and the participants?? subjective estimation of number of co-occurrences was greater than the correlation between TOT strength and the actual number of co-occurrences. This pattern of results was found even when recall increased along with the increase in number of co-occurrences and was more pronounced particularly when recall was reduced either by interference (Experiment 1) or by increased number of critical items (Experiments 2 & 3) and also by a reduced number of co-occurrence conditions and an increased gap between one level to the next (Experiment 3). Results suggest that an increase in association strength concomitantly increases TOT strength especially when the activation of the target is under threshold for recall and that people may use rules of thumb, or heuristic when they report TOTs by estimating the strength of the cue-target association.

Les mariages exogames, la mobilité de la population, la mondialisation, le bilinguisme social et l’éducation bilingue favorisent le développement du multilinguisme en Occident. La majorité de la recherche sur ce phénomène se réalise dans le cadre du bilinguisme et celui de l’acquisition d’une langue seconde. Pour les fins de cette étude, une personne qui a une connaissance de deux langues – même imparfaite – sera considérée comme étant bilingue. Une personne multilingue a une connaissance de trois langues ou plus. La recherche sur le multilinguisme n’en est qu’à ses débuts, mais elle est notamment parvenue à identifier des caractéristiques distinctes que partagent les personnes multilingues. Certains conçoivent le multilinguisme comme étant une extension du bilinguisme et considèrent que, quoique plus complexes, ses opérations lexicales restent les mêmes. D’autres estiment que la quantité de langues est un facteur qui suffit à créer une façon d’être distincte – un point de départ différent – pour une personne multilingue. L’une des questions importantes que l’on se pose dans le domaine du lexique multilingue est jusqu’à quel point le traitement lexical des langues d’un individu se fait de façon séparée ou conjointe. Cette étude se veut une contribution aux travaux de Peter Ecke, qui a étudié de façon extensive la nature des interactions translinguistiques chez les personnes bilingues et multilingues en utilisant les tests du dans un état « bout de la langue » (BDLL). Notre étude analyse le fonctionnement du vocabulaire de la L3 chez des adolescents ayant le profil suivant : L1 anglais, L2 français à un niveau débutant-intermédiare et L3 à un niveau débutant, acquis dans un contexte scolaire. En utilisant un outil d’élicitation de type BDLLL, nous tenterons d’identifier les caractéristiques des associations de mots alors que le sujet avait un mot sur le bout de la langue ou qu’il faisait une erreur lexicale, tout en étudiant la relation entre les lexiques de la L1, de la L2 et de la L3. Nos résultats indiquent que dans la recherche et l’identification de mots de la L3, lors d’instants où le sujet cherche ses mots ou fait une erreur lexicale, l’identification de l’aspect sémantique fonctionne, alors que l’identification de l’aspect formel échoue. Pour ce qui est des influences translinguistiques, la plupart des sujets cherchaient d’abord dans la L3 et passaient ensuite à une recherche dans la L2. L’influence de L1 s’est avérée faible. Nous attribuons la cause de l’influence translinguistique à la psychotypologie, la compétence, et la récence. In the western world, multilingualism is a growing phenomenon as a result of exogamous marriages, population mobility, globalization, social bilingualism and bilingual education. Most of the research in the field of multilingualism is carried out within the framework of research into bilingualism and second language acquisition. For the purposes of our study a bilingual speaker has knowledge, however imperfect, of two languages. A multilingual speaker has knowledge of three or more languages. Research into multilingualism is still in its early stages but has come far enough for researchers to identify distinct characteristics of the multilingual speaker. Some conclude that multilingualism is an extension of bilingualism, in that lexical operations are the same but more complex. Others believe that the quantity of languages alone creates a distinct state of being - a different starting place - for the multilingual speaker. One key question in the field of the multilingual lexicon to what degree is the lexical processing of the individual’s languages is separate or integrated. This study is a contribution to the research of Peter Ecke who has extensively studied the nature of cross-linguistic interaction in bilingual and multilingual speakers using tip of the tongue (TOT) tests. Our study analysed the processing of L3 vocabulary in adolescents with the following profile: L1 English, L2 French at a low-intermediate level and L3 Spanish at the beginner level in a school setting. Using a TOT elicitation tool, we sought to identify specific characteristics of word associates in TOT states and in lexical errors, as well as the relationship between the L1, L2 and L3 lexicons. Our results indicate that in the search and retrieval of L3 words in TOT states and in lexical errors, the retrieval of the semantic aspect succeeds while the retrieval of the form aspect fails. With regard to the source of cross-linguistic influence, most subjects searched initially within the L3 and failing that, proceeded to a search within the L2. L1 influence was weak. We attribute the cause of cross-linguistic influence to psychotypology, proficiency and recency. / Thesis (Master, French) -- Queen's University, 2007-09-26 21:28:27.802

Instances in which we cannot retrieve information immediately but know that the information might be retrieved later are subjective states that accompany retrieval failure. These are expressed in feeling-of-knowing (FOK) and Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) experiences. In Experiment 1, participants with Parkinson's disease (PD) and older adult controls were given general questions and asked to report when they experienced a TOT state and to give related information about the missing word. The PD group experienced similar levels of TOTs but provided less correct peripheral information related to the target when in a TOT state. In Experiment 2, participants were given a Semantic (general knowledge questions) and an Episodic (word pairs) FOK task. PD patients failed to accurately predict their future memory performance (FOK) in response to both episodic and semantic cues. Results are interpreted in the context of recent frameworks of memory and metacognition.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo observar, analisar e discutir como ocorre a busca por sinais-alvo, em indivíduos surdos, fluentes na Língua Brasileira de Sinais (Libras); verificar se ocorre, nesses indivíduos o fenômeno ponta dos dedos (TOF); e descrever os aspectos fonético-fonológicos na ocorrência do fenômeno. O TOF corresponde ao fenômeno ponta da língua (TOT) nas línguas orais. Esse fenômeno ocorre quando há o esquecimento momentâneo de palavras conhecidas e o sentimento de que essa palavra está prestes a ser recuperada. Tal fenômeno oferece pistas sobre o processamento da linguagem e a recuperação lexical. Poucos trabalhos foram realizados sobre este fenômeno nas línguas de sinais (THOMPSON; EMMOREY; GOLLAN, 2005) e essa investigação é importante, pois, por ser uma língua de modalidade distinta (visual-espacial), possui processos fonológicos particulares. Nesse sentido, foi elaborado um teste para eliciar o fenômeno em 34 adultos surdos, que relataram utilizar a Libras como principal meio de comunicação. O teste consistia na realização do sinal referente a personalidades famosas e a cidades no mundo. Foram exibidas imagens e o participante deveria dizer se sabia ou não o sinal referente à pessoa ou à cidade, ou se estava experienciando o TOF. Neste último caso, o participante deveria sinalizar o que lembrasse do sinal- alvo. Foram realizados 69 estímulos por participantes, somando um total de 2346 estímulos e, como resultado obtivemos a ocorrência de 20 TOFs (0,9% dos estímulos). Em todos os casos de TOF foi recuperado ao menos um dos parâmetros fonético-fonológicos (quais sejam, configuração de mão, localização/ espaço, orientação, movimento, número de mãos). Dos parâmetros fonético-fonológicos recuperados, a configuração de mão foi recuperada em 65% dos casos (13 vezes); a localização em 70% (14 vezes); o espaço em 85% (17 vezes); o movimento em 35% (7 vezes); a orientação em 50% (10 vezes); e o número de mãos em 90% dos casos (18 vezes). Corroboramos a conclusão de Thompson, Emmorey e Gollan (2005) de que o movimento é o parâmetro menos recuperado no momento do TOF. Esse fato pode indicar que os parâmetros localização, configuração de mão e orientação (mais recuperados no momento do TOF) constituem o onset da estrutura silábica do sinal, isto é, o segmento inicial do sinal. Além disso, a ocorrência do fenômeno ponta dos dedos na Libras ajuda a confirmar separação, no processamento da recuperação lexical em codificação semântica e codificação fonológica estabelecidas em modelos de recuperação de línguas orais (DELL, 1986; GARRETT, 1988; LEVELT, 1989). / The aim of this research is to analyze and discuss how the search for target signs occurs in the lexical retrieval in deaf people using Brazilian Sign Language (Libras); to verify if the \"tip of the fingers\" (TOF) phenomenon occurs; and describe the phonological aspects in the occurrence of the phenomenon. The TOF phenomenon mirrors the \"tip of the tongue\" phenomenon in oral languages. This phenomenon occurs when there is momentary forgetfulness of known words and the feeling that this word is about to be recovered. This phenomenon offers clues about language processing and lexical retrieval. Few studies have been carried out on this phenomenon in sign languages (THOMPSON; EMMOREY; GOLLAN, 2005) and this research is important because sign language has a different modality and therefore it has particular phonological processes. In this sense, a test was prepared to elicit the phenomenon in 34 deaf adults, who reported using Libras as the main means of communication. The test consisted of the signing regarding proper names of famous personalities and cities in the world. Images were displayed and the participant should say whether or not he knew the sign for the person or city, or whether he was experiencing TOF. In the latter case, the participant should sign what he remembered of the target signal. A total of 69 stimuli were performed per participant, totaling 2346 stimuli and, as a result, we obtained the occurrence of 20 TOFs (0.9% of the stimuli). In all TOF cases, at least one of the phonological parameters (ie, hand configuration, location / space, orientation, movement, number of hands) was retrieved. Of those, the hand configuration was recovered in 65% of the cases (13 times); the location in 70% (14 times); space 85% (17 times); movement in 35% (7 times); orientation by 50% (10 times); and the number of hands in 90% of the cases (18 times). We corroborate the conclusion of Thompson, Emmorey and Gollan (2005) that movement is the least recovered parameter at the time of TOF. This fact may indicate that the parameters localization, hand configuration and orientation (more retrieved while in TOF state) constitute the onset of the syllabic structure of the sign. In addition, the occurrence of the \"tip of the fingers\" phenomenon in Libras helps to confirm separation, in the processing of lexical retrieval in semantic encoding and phonological encoding established in lexical retrieval models of oral language (GARRETT, 1988; LEVELT, 1989).

Este trabalho teve como objetivo observar, analisar e discutir como ocorre a busca por sinais-alvo, em indivíduos surdos, fluentes na Língua Brasileira de Sinais (Libras); verificar se ocorre, nesses indivíduos o fenômeno ponta dos dedos (TOF); e descrever os aspectos fonético-fonológicos na ocorrência do fenômeno. O TOF corresponde ao fenômeno ponta da língua (TOT) nas línguas orais. Esse fenômeno ocorre quando há o esquecimento momentâneo de palavras conhecidas e o sentimento de que essa palavra está prestes a ser recuperada. Tal fenômeno oferece pistas sobre o processamento da linguagem e a recuperação lexical. Poucos trabalhos foram realizados sobre este fenômeno nas línguas de sinais (THOMPSON; EMMOREY; GOLLAN, 2005) e essa investigação é importante, pois, por ser uma língua de modalidade distinta (visual-espacial), possui processos fonológicos particulares. Nesse sentido, foi elaborado um teste para eliciar o fenômeno em 34 adultos surdos, que relataram utilizar a Libras como principal meio de comunicação. O teste consistia na realização do sinal referente a personalidades famosas e a cidades no mundo. Foram exibidas imagens e o participante deveria dizer se sabia ou não o sinal referente à pessoa ou à cidade, ou se estava experienciando o TOF. Neste último caso, o participante deveria sinalizar o que lembrasse do sinal- alvo. Foram realizados 69 estímulos por participantes, somando um total de 2346 estímulos e, como resultado obtivemos a ocorrência de 20 TOFs (0,9% dos estímulos). Em todos os casos de TOF foi recuperado ao menos um dos parâmetros fonético-fonológicos (quais sejam, configuração de mão, localização/ espaço, orientação, movimento, número de mãos). Dos parâmetros fonético-fonológicos recuperados, a configuração de mão foi recuperada em 65% dos casos (13 vezes); a localização em 70% (14 vezes); o espaço em 85% (17 vezes); o movimento em 35% (7 vezes); a orientação em 50% (10 vezes); e o número de mãos em 90% dos casos (18 vezes). Corroboramos a conclusão de Thompson, Emmorey e Gollan (2005) de que o movimento é o parâmetro menos recuperado no momento do TOF. Esse fato pode indicar que os parâmetros localização, configuração de mão e orientação (mais recuperados no momento do TOF) constituem o onset da estrutura silábica do sinal, isto é, o segmento inicial do sinal. Além disso, a ocorrência do fenômeno ponta dos dedos na Libras ajuda a confirmar separação, no processamento da recuperação lexical em codificação semântica e codificação fonológica estabelecidas em modelos de recuperação de línguas orais (DELL, 1986; GARRETT, 1988; LEVELT, 1989). / The aim of this research is to analyze and discuss how the search for target signs occurs in the lexical retrieval in deaf people using Brazilian Sign Language (Libras); to verify if the \"tip of the fingers\" (TOF) phenomenon occurs; and describe the phonological aspects in the occurrence of the phenomenon. The TOF phenomenon mirrors the \"tip of the tongue\" phenomenon in oral languages. This phenomenon occurs when there is momentary forgetfulness of known words and the feeling that this word is about to be recovered. This phenomenon offers clues about language processing and lexical retrieval. Few studies have been carried out on this phenomenon in sign languages (THOMPSON; EMMOREY; GOLLAN, 2005) and this research is important because sign language has a different modality and therefore it has particular phonological processes. In this sense, a test was prepared to elicit the phenomenon in 34 deaf adults, who reported using Libras as the main means of communication. The test consisted of the signing regarding proper names of famous personalities and cities in the world. Images were displayed and the participant should say whether or not he knew the sign for the person or city, or whether he was experiencing TOF. In the latter case, the participant should sign what he remembered of the target signal. A total of 69 stimuli were performed per participant, totaling 2346 stimuli and, as a result, we obtained the occurrence of 20 TOFs (0.9% of the stimuli). In all TOF cases, at least one of the phonological parameters (ie, hand configuration, location / space, orientation, movement, number of hands) was retrieved. Of those, the hand configuration was recovered in 65% of the cases (13 times); the location in 70% (14 times); space 85% (17 times); movement in 35% (7 times); orientation by 50% (10 times); and the number of hands in 90% of the cases (18 times). We corroborate the conclusion of Thompson, Emmorey and Gollan (2005) that movement is the least recovered parameter at the time of TOF. This fact may indicate that the parameters localization, hand configuration and orientation (more retrieved while in TOF state) constitute the onset of the syllabic structure of the sign. In addition, the occurrence of the \"tip of the fingers\" phenomenon in Libras helps to confirm separation, in the processing of lexical retrieval in semantic encoding and phonological encoding established in lexical retrieval models of oral language (GARRETT, 1988; LEVELT, 1989).

<p>Although many aspects of odor naming have received attention during the years, the participants' own cognitions (metamemory) about their naming attempts have not. (i) We showed that feeling of knowing (FOK) judgments accompanying odor naming failures are predictive of later recognition (Study I) or retrieval (Study III) of the missing name, but to a lesser degree than equivalent judgments about names of persons. “Tip of the nose” (TON) experiences do predict later odor name recall (Study I), but are otherwise poorly related to any partial activation of other information associated with the odor. (ii) We evaluated two theories proposed to explain the underlying basis of FOK judgments. Correlational analysis showed that FOK judgments about odor names are related to the perceived familiarity of the cue triggering the FOK (cue familiarity theory; Study III). FOK judgments are based on the amount of available information about the sought-for memory (accessibility theory; Study I and III). (iii) We demonstrated that the participants are overconfident in their odor naming attempts (Study I and II). This may to some degree be due to the arousing properties of the odors (Study II), suggesting that emotional variables should be taken into account when researching metamemory. (iv) Our inability to correctly name odors are typically not due to an uniquely poor association between odors and their proper names, but rather due to failures to identify the odors (Study III), that is, failures to retrieve “what it is”. It was also found that TOT experiences are unusual for odor names and more so than for person names. (v) We discuss potential differences between olfactory metamemory and metamemory for other modalities. The TON experience differs from the tip of the tongue (TOT) experience and the predictive validity is lower for metamemory judgments about odor names compared to other modalities.</p>

Although many aspects of odor naming have received attention during the years, the participants' own cognitions (metamemory) about their naming attempts have not. (i) We showed that feeling of knowing (FOK) judgments accompanying odor naming failures are predictive of later recognition (Study I) or retrieval (Study III) of the missing name, but to a lesser degree than equivalent judgments about names of persons. “Tip of the nose” (TON) experiences do predict later odor name recall (Study I), but are otherwise poorly related to any partial activation of other information associated with the odor. (ii) We evaluated two theories proposed to explain the underlying basis of FOK judgments. Correlational analysis showed that FOK judgments about odor names are related to the perceived familiarity of the cue triggering the FOK (cue familiarity theory; Study III). FOK judgments are based on the amount of available information about the sought-for memory (accessibility theory; Study I and III). (iii) We demonstrated that the participants are overconfident in their odor naming attempts (Study I and II). This may to some degree be due to the arousing properties of the odors (Study II), suggesting that emotional variables should be taken into account when researching metamemory. (iv) Our inability to correctly name odors are typically not due to an uniquely poor association between odors and their proper names, but rather due to failures to identify the odors (Study III), that is, failures to retrieve “what it is”. It was also found that TOT experiences are unusual for odor names and more so than for person names. (v) We discuss potential differences between olfactory metamemory and metamemory for other modalities. The TON experience differs from the tip of the tongue (TOT) experience and the predictive validity is lower for metamemory judgments about odor names compared to other modalities.

L’objectif du présent travail est d’une part d’évaluer les performances d’accès au mot chez des adultes jeunes (M = 22.1 ans) et âgés (M = 68.7 ans) et, d’autre part, de préciser la fonctionnalité des processus d’activation et d’inhibition lexicales avec l’âge. Dans le domaine du traitement des mots écrits, six études sont conduites en contrôlant le niveau de vocabulaire des participants. En utilisant des indices lexicaux objectifs et subjectifs adaptés aux adultes jeunes et âgés (Expérience 1a), nous observons une diminution des effets de fréquence objective (Expériences 1b-2) et de fréquence du voisinage orthographique avec l’âge (Expérience 4) dans la tâche de décision lexicale. D’autres données, obtenues avec cette tâche, précisent que la modification de l’effet de fréquence du voisinage avec l’âge est sensible à la familiarité des mots (Expériences 5-6), recueillie auprès d’adultes jeunes et âgés (Expérience 3). Dans le domaine de la production langagière orale, deux études utilisant un paradigme d’induction de Mot sur le Bout de la Langue (MBL) sont menées. Les résultats montrent que le nombre de MBL augmente avec l’âge (Expérience 7), indépendamment du niveau de vocabulaire. De plus, traiter un mot lié en son à la cible facilite autant sa récupération chez les adultes jeunes et âgés, tandis que traiter un mot lié en sens à la cible gêne sa récupération, et ce d’autant plus que les adultes sont âgés (Expérience 8). Dans l’ensemble, l’hypothèse combinée d’un déficit d’activation et d’inhibition, mise en lien avec les caractéristiques langagières des populations, permet de rendre compte de la modification des performances lexicales avec l’âge. / The aim of this study is to evaluate word access performances of young (M = 22.1 years) and older (M = 68.7 years) adults, and to specify possible changes in lexical activation and inhibition processes with aging. In the field of written word processing, six studies were conducted in which the participant vocabulary level was controlled. When using objective and subjective lexical measures appropriated to young and older adults (Experiment 1a), an age-related decreased was found for the objective frequency effect (Experiments 1b-2) and for the orthographic neighborhood frequency effect (Experiment 4) in the lexical decision task. Other data from this task indicated that the age-related change in the neighborhood frequency effect was sensitive to word familiarity ratings (Experiments 5-6) collected from young and older adults (Experiment 3). In field of the oral language production, two studies were run with a paradigm for inducing tip of the tongue (TOT) states. The results indicated that the number of TOT increased with aging (Experiment 7), which was not due to the vocabulary level. In addition, processing a word phonologically related to the target facilitated its recovery in young and older adults while processing a word semantically related to the target hindered its recovery, more for the older that for the young adults (Experiment 8). Overall, the combined hypothesis of activation and inhibition deficits, associated with linguistic characteristics of populations, can account for lexical performance changes with aging.

Des avantages et désavantages cognitifs existeraient chez l’enfant bilingue par rapport à son homologue unilingue, dû à l’activation constante des deux langues chez le bilingue et à son traitement langagier plus complexe. Cette surcharge de traitement affecterait d’ailleurs l’accès lexical des bilingues, qui auraient davantage de « mots sur le bout de la langue ». Puisque le discours pourrait être une mesure d’évaluation moins biaisée que les tests de vocabulaire normés et qui permettrait de saisir les compétences fondamentales lexicales des enfants, le Test of Word Finding in Discourse (TWFD ; German, 1991) a été utilisé afin d’évaluer l’incidence des manifestations des difficultés d’accès lexical (DAL ; répétition, révision, mot vide, commentaire métalinguistique ou métacognitif, substitution, pause ou interjection) dans trois situations discursives (2 narratives, 1 explicative) de 30 enfants québécois entre 7;1 et 10;8 ans (15 unilingues francophones et 15 bilingues simultanés français–anglais, dominants en français. L’alternance codique (code-switching), pertinente par la présence de la population bilingue, a aussi été étudiée. Aucune différence n’a été obtenue entre les enfants unilingues et bilingues pour l’incidence des manifestations des DAL. Davantage de mots vides et de révisions ont par ailleurs été obtenus dans le discours explicatif alors que le taux de pauses était plus élevé dans le discours narratif et ce, pour tous les enfants. L’évaluation de la productivité de langage a montré une différence entre les enfants bilingues et unilingues, où ces derniers ont obtenus des moyennes supérieures pour le nombre d’énoncés total, le nombre de mots total et le nombre de mots différents. Aussi, la longueur moyenne de l’énoncé était en moyenne plus longue, pour tous les enfants, dans le discours explicatif que dans la narration. Enfin, les manifestations du MBL en discours seraient une mesure sensible d’évaluation des enfants typiques bilingues, puisque leurs résultats de production ne diffèrent pas de ceux des unilingues typiques, ce qui pourrait éviter de les surdiagnostiquer avec un trouble de langage. / Cognitive advantages and disadvantages seem to exist in the bilingual child compared to his unilingual counterpart, due to the constant activation of the two languages in the bilingual and to his subsequent more complex language processing. This processing overload seems to affect the lexical access of bilinguals, who would have more words on the “tip of their tongue". Since discourse could be a less biased assessment measure than standardized vocabulary tests and would capture children's basic lexical skills, the Test of Word Finding in Discourse (TWFD ; German, 1991) was used to assess the presence of word-finding difficulties (WFD ; repetition, revision, empty word, metalinguistic or metacognitive comment, substitution, pause or interjection) in three discourse situations (2 narrative, 1 expository) of 30 Quebec children between 7;1 and 10;8 years old (15 unilingual francophones and 15 French-English bilinguals (French dominant)). Code-switching, relevant to the presence of the bilingual population, was also studied. No difference was found between monolingual and bilingual children in the WFD measure for the incidence of WFD. More empty words and revisions were obtained in the expository speech for all children, while the rate of pauses was higher in the narrative speech. The assessment of language productivity showed a difference between bilingual and monolingual children, where the latter obtained higher averages for the total number of utterances, the total number of words and the number of different words. Also, the mean length of utterances was longer in the expository discourse than in the narrative, regardless of languages spoken by the children. Finally, WFD manifestations in discourse could be a sensitive measure of assessment for typical bilingual children, since their production scores did not differ from those of typical monolinguals. This could prevent overidentification of language disorders in this population.