Apatite was formed on the surface of titanium dioxide (TiO2) powders by a biomimetic process. The deposition was accomplished by immersing TiO2 powders in simulated body fluid (SBF) for 1, 3, 6, 12, and 24 h. SBF used throughout this study had calcium and phosphate ion concentrations 10 times greater than those of human blood plasma. Photocatalytic activity of the apatite-deposited TiO2 powders was investigated in terms of the decomposition of methylene blue solution under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. It has been shown that apatite deposition enhanced the photocatalytic activity of TiO2. The best photocatalytic performance was acquired on the powders that are immersed in SBF for 3 h. The time required for the complete degradation of methylene blue decreased from 3.5 h to 2 h upon immersion of powders in SBF for 3 h. Photochemical durability of poly(methyl methacrylate) increased when it was mixed with apatite-deposited TiO2 powders.

This study combined photocatalytic technology with activated carbon cellulose-paper filter (ACCF) adsorption to decompose gaseous pollutants. Gaseous pollutants were initially adsorbed by activated carbon and could be further decomposed by photocatalytic technology. This study selected acetone (CH3COCH3) as gaseous pollutants. Two market available photocatalysts (photocatalysts¢¹and¢º) were coated on ACCF by impregnation to decompose acetone in a batch photocatlytic reactor. Operating parameters investigated in this study included initial acetone concentration (4.1~10.2 £gM), reaction temperature (40~70¢J), and water vapor (0~20 %). The incident UV light of 365 nm was irradiated by a 20-watt low-pressure mercury lamp placing above the batch photocatalytic reactor. The ACCF coated with TiO2 was placed at the center of the photocatalytic reactor. Acetone was injected into the reactor by a gasket syringe to conduct the photocatalytic tests. Reactants and products were analyzed quantitatively by a gas chromatography with an electron capture detector (GC/DCD) and a flame ionization detector followed by a methaneizer (GC/FID-Methaneizer). Finally, a Langmiur-Hinshewood (L-H) kinetic model was proposed to describe the rate of photocatalytic reaction. Results obtained from the photocatalytic tests indicated that photocatalyst¢º was better than photocatalyst¢¹ for the decomposition of acetone. Experimental results indicated that the size range of self-produced TiO2 photocatalyst by sol-gel was 20~70 nm. The end products were mainly CO and CO2, which resulted in the mineralization ratio up to 98%. Results obtained from the operating parameter tests revealed that the increase of initial acetone concentration enhanced the amount of acetone adsorbed on ACCF, which however did not increase the reaction rate of acetone. Although the increase of reaction temperature could reduce the amount of acetone adsorbed on ACCF, the decomposition rate of acetone could be promoted, so as the yield rate and mineralization ratio of products (CO and CO2). The increase of water vapor could slightly decrease the amount of acetone adsorbed on ACCF. The competitive adsorption phenomenon between acetone and water molecules on active sites could decelerate the decomposion of acetone. Moreover, the ACCF would not be saturated since the adsorbed acetone could be further decomposed quickly by the photocatalysts, which made the TiO2/ACCF more effective on removing acetone and lasted longer than the conventional ACCF. Finally, a modified bimolecular Langmuir-Hinshelwood kinetic model was developed to investigate the influences of initial acetone concentration reaction, temperature, and relative humidity on the promotion and inhibition for the photocatalytic oxidation of acetone. The modified L-H kinetic model could successfully simulate the photocatalytic reaction rate of acetone. Thus, the reaction rate of acetone over TiO2/ACCF could be described by the modified L-H kinetic model.

In this study, photoemission spectroscopy (PES) was used to investigate the electronic properties of nanocrystalline titanium dioxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), and cadmium selenide (CdSe). Electrospray deposition technique enabled the preparation of thin films in vacuum from a dispersion prepared outside the vacuum chamber. This method also allowed the step-wise formation of interfaces and the monitoring of the evolution of the electronic structure with intermittent PES characterization. The work function of nanocrystalline TiO2 and ZnO was measured with ultraviolet photoemission spectroscopy (UPS) and low-intensity x-ray photoemission spectroscopy (LIXPS). Measurements on environmentally contaminated surfaces revealed an instantaneous and permanent work function decrease of 0.3-0.5 eV upon exposure to ultraviolet radiation during a UPS measurement. The work function reduction is likely to be related to the formation of a surface dipole caused by the photo-chemical hydroxylation of surface defects. This phenomenon was further investigated with regard to its influence on the electronic structure of the indium tin oxide (ITO)/TiO2 interface found in dye-sensitized solar cells. The experiments suggest that UV radiation can cause a small but significant change of the charge injection barriers at the interface. The determined band line-ups revealed electron injection barriers of ~0.3-0.5 eV, while UV radiation caused an increase of about 0.15 eV. This might have the potential to further impede electron transfer to the ITO electrode and affect the performance of solar cell device. Another type of photovoltaic cell using nanocrystalline material is a heterojunction bulk solar cell. Conversion efficiencies of such devices are currently only about 3% due to the inefficient charge separation at interfaces formed by blending organic and inorganic material. An approach to improve efficiencies in such devices is the use of covalently bonded conductive polymer/inorganic hybrid nanocrystals. In this study a prototypical model system was investigated with PES with the aim to develop a measurement protocol that allows the determination of electronic properties for such hybrid materials. The comparison of the relative core-level binding energies of the organics-functionalized CdSe nanocrystal compared to the ligand-free CdSe nanocrystal and the arylselenophosphate ligand material enabled the determination of the electronic structure at the interface. Core-level measurements support the hypothesis that the Se functionality of the organic ligand coordinates to the Cd sites on the nanopthesis surface.

Στην παρούσα διατριβή, παρασκευάστηκαν νανοκρυσταλλικά υμένια TiO2 και εναποτέθηκαν σε υπόστρωμα γυαλιού, με τη μέθοδο sol – gel παρουσία του τασιενεργού μορίου Triton X-100. Τα υμένια πυρώθηκαν στους 550ο C ώστε να καούν οι οργανικές ενώσεις, ενώ η εναπομένουσα ανόργανη δομή αποτελείται από νανοσωματίδια, με μεγάλη ειδική επιφάνεια, μεγαλύτερη από την αναμενόμενη για τόσο υψηλές θερμοκρασίες πύρωσης. Ο σχηματισμός των νανοκρυσταλλιτών οφείλεται στην αυτο – οργάνωση του τασιενεργού μορίου το οποίο δρα ως εκμαγείο των νανοσωματιδίων. Ο χαρακτηρισμός των υμενίων πραγματοποιήθηκε με πλήθος τεχνικών χαρακτηρισμού (UV-Vis, XRD, B.E.T, FTIR, AFM). Τα υμένια αποδείχθηκαν πολύ αποδοτικά για τη φωτοαποικοδόμηση διαφόρων χρωστικών και ιδιαιτέρως της Basic Blue 41, είτε στον αέρα είτε σε υδατικά διαλύματα. Τρεις διαφορετικοί τύποι χημικών δομών χρωστικών χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για τις μελέτες φωτοαποικοδόμησης: Basic Blue 41, Acid Orange 7 και Crystal Violet και έγινε σύγκριση του ρυθμού φωτοαποικοδόμησης των. Μια πολύ μικρή ποσότητα TiO2 (154 mg/l) είναι αρκετή ώστε να αποχρωματίσει αραιά διαλύματα της χρωστικής μέσα σε λίγες ώρες, ακόμα και με φωτοβόληση της επιφάνειας του καταλύτη με λαμπτήρες πολύ χαμηλής ισχύος (0.7 mW/cm2) υπεριώδους ακτινοβολίας. Ο καταλύτης μπορεί εύκολα να αναγεννηθεί και να επαναχρησιμοποιηθεί για διαδοχικούς κύκλους φωτοκατάλυσης, χωρίς μείωση της φωτοκαταλυτικής του δραστικότητας. Τέλος, εναποτέθηκαν λεπτά υμένια, σε υπόστρωμα υάλου, τόσο από καθαρό όσο και από εμπλουτισμένο TiO2 με ιόντα μετάλλων. Χρησιμοποιήθηκαν προσμίξεις, σε ένα μεγάλο εύρος συγκεντρώσεων, ιόντων μετάλλων Fe3+, Cr3+ και Co2+ και πραγματοποιήθηκε σύγκριση της φωτοκαταλυτικής τους δραστικότητας στον αποχρωματισμό υδατικών διαλυμάτων χρωστικών. Η παρουσία των προσμίξεων οδήγησε σε σταδιακή μείωση της κρυσταλλικότητας του TiO2, σε μετατροπή του ανατάση σε ρουτήλιο και, στην περίπτωση του Co2+, στο σχηματισμό μικτού οξειδίου CoTiO3. H καταστροφή του ανατάση είχε δραματικές επιπτώσεις στη φωτοκαταλυτική δραστικότητα του TiO2 κατά τη φωτοβόληση με UV – Vis, η οποία μειωνόταν με την αύξηση της συγκέντρωσης των προσμίξεων. Η φωτοβόληση του εμπλουτισμένου TiO2 με καθένα από τα τρία αυτά ιόντα, μόνο με ορατό φως, οδήγησε μεν στον αποχρωματισμό της χρωστικής αλλά με πολύ μικρότερο ρυθμό από ότι με το ορατό - υπεριώδες. Σε κάθε περίπτωση, αποδεικνύεται ότι η άμεση φωτοδιέγερση του καθαρού TiO2 αποτελεί μια πιο αποδοτική διαδικασία από τη διέγερση εμπλουτισμένου TiO2 στο ορατό. / Transparent nanocrystalline titania films have been deposited on glass slides by using sol-gel procedures carried out in the presence of the surfactant Triton X-100. Films were calcined at 550 oC to ensure destruction of all organic residues but they still retained structures that consist of small nanoparticles and very high active surface areas, larger than expected for such high heating temperatures. Nanocrystallites are formed due to surfactant self organization that acts as a template. Characterization of the films has been made by various techniques (UV-Vis, XRD, B.E.T, FTIR, AFM). These films are very efficient for photodegradation of various dyes, especially the Basic Blue 41, either in air or in aqueous solutions. Three different chemical structures of dyes were used for photodegradation in aqueous solutions: Basic Blue 41, Acid Orange 7, and Crystal Violet and their photodegradation rates have been compared. A very low load of TiO2 (154 mg/l) is capable of bleaching dilute solutions in only a few hours by shining black light of 0.7 mW/cm2. An inexpensive and simple reactor of cylindrical symmetry was described which employs a 4 W black-light tube as light source. The catalyst can be easily recovered and can be repeatedly used without loss of efficiency. Finally, thin films of pure or doped nanocrystalline titania have been deposited on glass slides by using the same sol-gel procedure, in order to compare their photocatalytic activity for photodegradation of aqueous solution of dyes. Fe3+, Cr3+ and Co2+ were used as dopants while the doping extended in a broad domain from very low to very high levels. The presence of dopants resulted in a progressive loss of total crystallinity, some transition from anatase to rutile and, in the case of Co2+, formation of the mixed oxide cobalt titanate. Loss of anatase had dramatic consequences on photocatalytic efficiency by UV-Vis excitation, which decreased fast by increasing dopant concentration. Selected visible excitation of the doped titania could lead to photodegradation of the dye but to a far lesser degree than UV-Vis excitation. In any case, direct UV excitation of pure titania is a more efficient photocatalytic process than visible excitation of doped titania.

Cement clinker production is a highly resource and energy intensive process and contributes substantially to annual global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. One potential pathway to reduce the environmental footprint of cement-based materials is through the reduction of clinker content in concrete by partial replacement of cement with fillers. In this investigation, the partial replacement of cement with chemically inert nano and microsized fillers of titanium dioxide (TiO₂) and limestone was examined. The effects of nano and micro fillers on early-age properties, long-term properties, photocatalytic properties (for TiO₂-cement mixtures) and life cycle costs were measured and compared. Investigation of early-age properties shows that nanoparticles increase rate and degree of early cement hydration and chemical shrinkage due to heterogeneous nucleation effect. In contrast, coarser microparticles (>3µm in this research) maintain or marginally decrease the rate and degree of early cement hydration and decrease chemical shrinkage due to a dilution effect. In addition, temperature sensitivity of hydration reactions increases in the presence of nanoparticles. Investigation of long-term properties shows that pore size refinement is possible with the partial replacement of cement with nanoparticle fillers. But the long-term tests of filler-cement mixes also demonstrate that, compared to ordinary portland cement mix, the strength decreases and permeability increases. Analysis of photocatalytic properties of TiO₂-cement mixtures showed a lack of an appropriate testing procedure for nitrogen oxide (NOₓ) gas conversion by cement-based materials. Thus, a new standardized procedure and photocatalytic efficiency factor for characterizing photocatalytic NOₓ binding by cementitious materials is proposed. Life cycle analysis demonstrates that although inclusion of TiO₂ increases initial environmental impact of cementitious materials, the innovative photocatalytic properties of TiO₂ could improve sustainability. Life cycle analysis also shows that partial replacement of cement with limestone decreases environmental impact of cementitious mixtures due to lower processing “costs” of limestone compared to cement. Thus, the results from the current research demonstrate that variation of dosage and particle size of inert fillers can be used to tailor properties and structure of cement-based materials and that environmental sustainability can be improved by partial replacement of cement with inert fillers that introduce additional functionalities or fillers with lower embodied-energy and emissions.

A biodegradable alternative to synthetic plastics was explored in this study through the extrusion of a soy-based protein/fiber composite film. Two fractions of fibers with different size distributions (nano- to micro-) were isolated from soy pods and stems using a chemi-mechanical method. Fibers through successive treatments were characterized via microscopy, x-ray diffraction, and Fourier Transform infrared analysis (FTIR). The continuous extrusion of homogenous SPI film (0.08 to 0.3 mm thick) was reported for the first time. Processing window was limited by protein sensitivity to moisture and heat. With the incorporation of extracted fibers, homogenous films were obtained with a concentration below 0.5% w/w fiber/SPI. Increasing fiber content resulted in the formation of aggregates. At the optimal concentration of 0.25% w/w fiber/SPI, films exhibited mild improvements in mechanical performance most noticeable at a high RH (84%). Film properties with and without fiber addition were negatively affected by relative humidity. Titanium dioxide addition suggested mild coupling effects for SPI and fiber. / Hannam Soy Foundation / Ontario Ministry of Agricultural, Food, and Rural Affairs (OMAFRA)

No description available.

Heavy mineral deposits along the east coast of South Africa represent the world's largest demonstrated resource of beach placer ilmenite. This mineral occurs as homogeneous, subrounded grains, with chemical compositions close to pure FeTi03• Concentrates contain between 48 and 52 per cent Ti02, with minor impurities of MnO, MgO, and Cr203. Most coastal ilmenites are unaltered or display only incipient alteration, but the entire spectrum of alteration products from ilmenite to rutile or anatase, is observed. Transmission electron microscopy of weathered ilmenites reveals that ilmenite commonly alters to pseudorutile and then to rutile or anatase, as described by Teufer and Temple (1966) and Grey and Reid (1975). Ilmenite may also alter directly to rutile (or anatase) in a single-stage process. In addition, ilmenite altered by high temperature oxidation and hydrothermal processes is found in the deposits. There is good mineralogical evidence that the alteration of ilmenites found in the coastal sediments is best described by a multi stage model, in which some ilmenite grains were altered prior to final deposition. Other common iron-titanium oxides in the deposits include magnetite, rutile and hematite, which may occur as discrete grains or as composite grains of two or more oxides. Ilmenite and magnetite in the coastal sediments are derived from rocks of both the Karoo Igneous Province and the Natal Basement, while rutile is derived solely from the latter. Ilmenites from certain rock groups may be distinguished on the basis of their chemical composition. However, magnetite chemistry is a better indicator of provenance, and magnetites from the above two sources can be clearly distinguished. The petrography of the iron-titanium oxides may be used as a provenance indicator, but may be misleading, as the proportions of the oxide intergrowths change with transport and weathering. Variations in the proportions and chemical compositions of iron-titanium oxides and other heavy minerals within the coastal sediments are caused by provenance, selective sorting during deposition, age of the deposit, weathering, and the recent geological history of the area. A model is proposed in this study which describes the formation of the heavy mineral deposits in relationship to the above influences. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1993.

The photocatalytic production of H2 from water as well as from a 1:1 methanol:water solution employing pre–treated TiO2 and various Pt–TiO2 photocatalysts was studied by using an Nd:YAG laser as irradiation source. The photocatalysts (0.5–, 1–, 1.5– and 2 wt% Pt–TiO2) were prepared by utilizing a photocatalytic reduction method after which characterisation by various analytical techniques, i.e. XRD, TEM, ICP, SEM, and EDX, were conducted. XRD clearly indicated that platinum was not present in the crystal structure of TiO2, but was rather loaded onto the surface of TiO2. TEM analysis confirmed the presence of Pt on the surface with a particle/cluster size between 11 nm and 22 nm. SEM showed that repeatable results in respect of surface appearance were obtained. ICP and EDX indicated that the loading method was successful with only a slight deviation between the actual amount loaded and the calculated amount loaded. The impact of the loaded Pt on the band gaps of the different photocatalysts was investigated by diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) and calculated by employing the Kubelka–Munk method. The band gap values shifted sequentially from 3.236eV to 3.100 eV as the loading increased, moving closer to the absorbance region for visible light. The amount of hydrogen produced from the individual photocatalysts dispersed in both pure water and aqueous methanol solutions, was measured manually with a gas chromatograph. As soon as irradiation was initiated, a distinct colour change from shades of grey to dark blue–grey was observed for all the photocatalysts. XRD confirmed that it was due to the anatase phase transforming to produce more rutile phase. No H2 was detected for the various photocatalysts suspended in water, i.e. in the absence of methanol. The amount of hydrogen produced from the various Pt photocatalysts suspended in the aqueous methanol solution was found to be the highest for the 0.5wt%– and 1.5wt% Pt–TiO2 photocatalysts and the lowest for the 2wt% Pt–TiO2. This could be due to loading Pt above the optimum amount to such an extent, preventing sufficient light from reaching the TiO2 surface. Pt particles can also touch and overlap which will decrease Pt contact with TiO2 thus decreasing effective charge transfer. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Chemistry))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

The photocatalytic production of H2 from water as well as from a 1:1 methanol:water solution employing pre–treated TiO2 and various Pt–TiO2 photocatalysts was studied by using an Nd:YAG laser as irradiation source. The photocatalysts (0.5–, 1–, 1.5– and 2 wt% Pt–TiO2) were prepared by utilizing a photocatalytic reduction method after which characterisation by various analytical techniques, i.e. XRD, TEM, ICP, SEM, and EDX, were conducted. XRD clearly indicated that platinum was not present in the crystal structure of TiO2, but was rather loaded onto the surface of TiO2. TEM analysis confirmed the presence of Pt on the surface with a particle/cluster size between 11 nm and 22 nm. SEM showed that repeatable results in respect of surface appearance were obtained. ICP and EDX indicated that the loading method was successful with only a slight deviation between the actual amount loaded and the calculated amount loaded. The impact of the loaded Pt on the band gaps of the different photocatalysts was investigated by diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) and calculated by employing the Kubelka–Munk method. The band gap values shifted sequentially from 3.236eV to 3.100 eV as the loading increased, moving closer to the absorbance region for visible light. The amount of hydrogen produced from the individual photocatalysts dispersed in both pure water and aqueous methanol solutions, was measured manually with a gas chromatograph. As soon as irradiation was initiated, a distinct colour change from shades of grey to dark blue–grey was observed for all the photocatalysts. XRD confirmed that it was due to the anatase phase transforming to produce more rutile phase. No H2 was detected for the various photocatalysts suspended in water, i.e. in the absence of methanol. The amount of hydrogen produced from the various Pt photocatalysts suspended in the aqueous methanol solution was found to be the highest for the 0.5wt%– and 1.5wt% Pt–TiO2 photocatalysts and the lowest for the 2wt% Pt–TiO2. This could be due to loading Pt above the optimum amount to such an extent, preventing sufficient light from reaching the TiO2 surface. Pt particles can also touch and overlap which will decrease Pt contact with TiO2 thus decreasing effective charge transfer. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Chemistry))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.