La Commission des Nations Unies pour le droit commercial international (CNUDCI), organe juridique principal de l’Organisation des Nations Unies à vocation universelle, a reçu de l’Assemblée générale de l’ONU pour mandat d’harmoniser, d’uniformiser et de coordonner le droit commercial international. Plus de quarante-cinq années après sa création, la CNUDCI poursuit son œuvre dans les domaines les plus importants du droit commercial international tels que l’arbitrage commercial international, la vente internationale de marchandises, le droit des sûretés, l’insolvabilité, les paiements internationaux, le transport international de marchandises, le commerce électronique, la passation de marchés et le développement des infrastructures. En adoptant divers instruments juridiques par le biais d’un processus de négociation intégrant les Etats ainsi que certaines organisations intergouvernementales et non gouvernementales, la CNUDCI met à la disposition de la communauté internationale des marchands les outils juridiques nécessaires permettant de faciliter et de sécuriser les opérations du commerce mondial. La présente thèse analyse la manière dont la CNUDCI contribue au renforcement du droit commercial international en adoptant un ensemble de règles juridiques sur les opérations commerciales internationales. / The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) is recognized as the core legal body of the United Nations system in the field of international trade law, and has a mandate from the UN General Assembly to harmonize, modernize and coordinate rules on international business. Since its inception over forty-five years ago, UNCITRAL has continued to pursue these aims in the key areas of international trade law such as international commercial arbitration and conciliation, international sales of goods and related transactions, security interests, international payments, international transport of goods, electronic commerce, procurement and infrastructure development. By adopting various legal instruments through a negotiation process involving relevant States and some intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, UNCITRAL provides legal tools to the international merchant community to facilitate and secure transactions in global trade. This thesis analyzes how UNCITRAL contributes to strengthening international trade law by formulating rules on international commercial transactions.

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This Master's Thesis deals with the application of the concept of lex mercatoria in process of contracting process and in the dispute resolution, particularly in international commercial arbitration. The first chapter briefly describes the historical development of lex mercatoria and examines in detail the circumstances of the establishment of modern lex mercatoria . Further, the Thesis describes the general methods of regulation of the private relations with an international element. In connection with the use of lex mercatoria in the process of contracting the specific attention is given to the choice of applicable law by reference to certain rules of lex mercatoria. The criticism of such choice-of-law method is analysed, as well as its justification and also the requirements for the validity of such choice-of-law method. The second half of the Thesis is dedicated to a particular formalized rules of lex mercatoria, as well as to their legal grounds in Czech law, and also to some legislative changes in the Czech Republic after January 1, 2014, relevant to the lex mercatoria. The final chapter addresses the practical application of lex mercatoria in the international commercial arbitration. The chapter begins with a brief and general introduction to the international commercial arbitration....

Nas últimas décadas, a importância da normalização técnica para comércio internacional aumentou consideravelmente. Segundo dados da OCDE, estima-se que um total de 80% do comércio global na atualidade seja afetado por normas e regulamentos técnicos. Esse cenário justifica a preocupação dos Membros da OMC em incentivar o estabelecimento de padrões tecnológicos comuns nos diversos países, como um instrumento para evitar o incremento das barreiras técnicas e promover a facilitação do fluxo internacional de bens, serviços, investimentos e tecnologias. Contudo, o crescente envolvimento de direitos de propriedade intelectual nas normas técnicas internacionais tem preocupado algumas nações, principalmente em decorrência dos elevados custos, tensões e conflitos que resultam dessa situação, impactando de forma negativa o comércio. Sob a perspectiva do ordenamento jurídico do comércio internacional, o conflito revela-se no conjunto de obrigações que os Membros assumem no âmbito da OMC. Se os países devem obrigatoriamente utilizar como base as normas técnicas internacionais para estabelecer suas normas e regulamentos domésticos, e aquelas se encontram revestidas de direitos exclusivos privados, sua efetiva aplicação no plano doméstico depende da licença dos titulares desses direitos, nos termos e condições por eles impostos. No entanto, uma vez que eles não estejam dispostos a conceder licenças em termos razoáveis e não discriminatórios, ou se recusem a conferir a autorização, os países encontram dificuldades ou, ainda, ficam impossibilitados de implementar de forma plena as obrigações assumidas na OMC. A partir dessa hipótese, o presente estudo tem como objetivo analisar como se encontra regulada a relação entre a normalização técnica e a propriedade intelectual no ordenamento jurídico do comércio internacional. Esta tese confirma que as tensões inerentes à relação entre propriedade intelectual e normalização técnica alimentam um conflito sob a perspectiva do ordenamento jurídico do comércio internacional, que não possui regras específicas para regular a questão. Este conflito se traduz na dificuldade que os países têm na implementação plena das obrigações assumidas na OMC. Para a mitigação dos problemas que emergem desse conflito, observa-se que se destacam duas tendências seguidas pelos Membros da Organização. Uma delas consiste em incrementar as flexibilidades do Acordo TRIPS, como se verifica nos Estados Unidos, União Europeia e Índia. Outra opção observada é o afastamento das normas técnicas internacionais em prol da adoção de normas e regulamentos técnicos domésticos baseados em tecnologias nacionais ou não proprietárias com fundamento nas flexibilidades dos acordos TBT, SPS e GATS. Casos nesse sentido são identificados em países como China. Em certas circunstâncias, a preferência pelo estabelecimento de normas e regulamentos técnicos baseados essencialmente em tecnologias nacionais protegidas por direitos de propriedade intelectual pode robustecer as barreiras técnicas ao comércio. Diante disso, com o propósito de assegurar a efetividade dos acordos multilaterais de comércio e garantir segurança jurídica, entende-se necessário a adoção de medidas claras e adequadas, que busquem eliminar ou reduzir as tensões e conflito, e garantir a previsibilidade do Sistema Multilateral de Comércio. Importa, ainda, que tais medidas sejam estabelecidas de forma a facilitar o comércio internacional e promover a concorrência leal, a inovação, a transferência da tecnologia e o desenvolvimento das nações. / In recents decades, the importance of technical standards for international trade has increased substantially. According to OECD data, it is estimated that around 80% of global trade is affected by standards and technical regulations. This scenario justifies the concerns of WTO Members to encourage the settlement of common technological standards in different countries, as a tool to prevent the rise of technical barriers and promote the facilitation of the international flow of goods, services, investment and technology. However, the increasing involvement of intellectual property rights in international standards has concerned some nations, mainly due to high costs, tensions and conflicts that result from this situation, adversely impacting trade. From the perspective of international trade law, the conflict is revealed in the set of obligations that States assumed in the WTO. If countries must use international standards as a basis to establish technical regulations and norms, and those are covered by private exclusive rights, its effective implementation at the domestic level depends on the approval of rights holders, according the terms and conditions imposed by them. However, since the rights holders are not willing to grant licenses on reasonable and non-discriminatory conditions, or refuse to grant the licenses, countries may find difficult or even remain unable to fully implement their obligations in the WTO. From this hypothesis, this study aims to analyze as it is regulated the relationship between technical standards and intellectual property in international trade law. This thesis confirms that the tensions inherent in the relationship between intellectual property and technical standardization feed a conflict from the perspective of international trade law, which has no specific rules to regulate this question. This conflict is reflected in the difficulty countries have in the full implementation of the obligations assumed in WTO. In order to mitigate the problems that emerge from this conflict, it is observed that there are two trends followed by the Members of the Organization. One is to enhance the flexibilities of the TRIPS Agreement, as is the case in the United States, European Union and India. Another option is the deviation of international standards in favor of domestic standards and technical regulations based on national or non proprietary technologies founded on the flexibilities of TBT, SPS and GATS. Such cases are identified in countries like China. In some circumstances, the preference for the creation of standards and technical regulations based mainly on national technologies protected by intellectual property rights can strengthen the technical barriers to trade. Therefore, in order to ensure the effectiveness of multilateral trade agreements, it is necessary to establish clear and appropriate measures, which seek to eliminate or reduce tensions and conflict, and ensure the predictability of the multilateral trading system. It is also important that such measures are established to facilitate international trade and promote fair competition, innovation, technology transfer and development of nations.

Submitted by Jean Michel Pimentel Rocha null (jeanpimentel_sp@yahoo.com.br) on 2017-03-13T00:13:35Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação de Mestrado - Jean Michel Pimentel Rocha.pdf: 7641896 bytes, checksum: 2633c2aa0b97f8ba1b6073618c876b12 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by LUIZA DE MENEZES ROMANETTO (luizamenezes@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2017-03-17T15:07:10Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 rocha_jmp_me_sjrp.pdf: 7641896 bytes, checksum: 2633c2aa0b97f8ba1b6073618c876b12 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-03-17T15:07:10Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 rocha_jmp_me_sjrp.pdf: 7641896 bytes, checksum: 2633c2aa0b97f8ba1b6073618c876b12 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-02-17 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Esta pesquisa, ancorada no aporte teórico da Linguística de Corpus e da Fraseologia, áreas cujo diálogo tem possibilitado a descrição e análise de padrões linguísticos, em especial os lexicais, a partir de corpora, teve por objetivo desenvolver um estudo teórico-metodológico acerca dos procedimentos necessários ao levantamento e à análise sintático-morfológica, léxico-semântica e tradutológica das colocações especializadas extraídas do corpus paralelo, em inglês e em espanhol, constituído pelos anuários (1968-2010) da UNCITRAL (Comissão das Nações Unidas para o Direito do Comércio Internacional); e de dois corpora comparáveis em português: um compilado pela ferramenta BootCat Front End (ZANCHETTA; BARONI; BERNARDINI, 2011) e, outro, pela coleta de textos online da área do Direito Comercial Internacional. Com base neste estudo, determinamos as colocações funcionalmente equivalentes (TOGNINI-BONELLI; MANCA, 2004) em português e elaboramos uma proposta de glossário trilíngue nas direções tradutórias inglês>espanhol>português, na área supracitada. Extraímos cerca de 200 bases candidatas a integrar o glossário, orientando-nos pelo método N-gram/cluster analysis e cooccurrence analysis (GRANGER, PAQUOT, 2008), mais especificamente, pela utilização das ferramentas Concord, Keywords e Wordlist do programa WordSmith Tools (SCOTT, 2012). Dessas, elegemos a base contract como modelo de análise a ser aplicada às demais. As colocações que dela se desdobram, estruturam-se, do ponto de vista sintático-morfológico, em colocações nominais, adjetivais e verbais. Quanto aos aspectos léxico-semânticos e tradutológicos, observamos muitos casos de variação colocacional, principalmente, nos níveis lexical e morfossintático, ora estruturando-se em um sintagma preposicionado ora em um sintagma nominal. Notamos, ainda, colocações, nas línguas portuguesa e espanhola, que apresentaram empréstimos em pelo menos um de seus constituintes. Além disso, há um grande número de colocações com similaridade ortográfica entre as línguas. Em nossas análises, defendemos que as colocações especializadas e suas variantes lexicais não podem ser perfeitamente sinônimas, já que não podemos afirmar categoricamente que uma substitui a outra em qualquer contexto. Conforme os dados analisados, as colocações especializadas podem estabelecer entre si uma relação parassinonímica, isto é, compartilham semas em comum. Argumentamos, também, que há uma relação de equivalência funcional entre as colocações descritas nos idiomas investigados, considerando que elas permeiam o léxico jurídico-comercial de línguas distintas, fruto de distintas tradições linguístico-culturais, o que pode acarretar mudanças de significado, por vezes sutis, que não permitem entendê-las como totalmente equivalentes. A pesquisa que se apresenta é de relevância para a fraseologia jurídico-comercial, pois a descrição dos padrões sintagmáticos, léxico-semânticos e tradutológicos das colocações pode auxiliar no reconhecimento das características linguísticas da área, visto que poucos são os trabalhos desenvolvidos, especialmente em relação às colocações especializadas e colocações especializadas estendidas. Ademais, o resultado prático, isto é, a proposta de glossário de colocações, poderá trazer contribuições aos tradutores, aprendizes e demais interessados na tradução e redação de documentos nas línguas estudadas. / This research, anchored in the theoretical background of Corpus Linguistics and Phraseology, areas whose dialogue has enabled descriptions and analysis of linguistic patterns, especially the corpus-based lexical ones, aimed at the development of a theoretical and methodological study on the necessary procedures for the extraction, syntactic-morphological, lexical-semantic and translational analysis of specialized collocations from a parallel corpus in English and Spanish, consisting of the UNCITRAL (United Nations Commission on International Trade Law) yearbooks (1968 – 2010); and from two comparable corpora in Portuguese: one of them compiled using the BootCat Front End tools (ZANCHETTA; BARONI; BERNARDINI, 2011) and the other one by collecting online texts from the field of International Trade Law. On the basis of that, we determined the functionally equivalents collocations (TOGNINI-BONELLI; MANCA, 2004) in Portuguese and elaborated a proposal for a trilingual glossary in the translation directions English>Spanish>Portuguese in the above area. We extracted about 200 bases candidates to be included in the glossary entries, guided by the N-gram/cluster and cooccurrence analysis methods (GRANGER, PAQUOT, 2008), more specifically, by the use of the tools Concord, Keywords and Wordlist of the software WordSmith Tools (SCOTT, 2012). Among the 200 extracted candidates, we chose the base contract as an analytical model to be applied to the others. The collocations of this base are structured, from a syntactic-morphological point of view, in nominal, adjectival and verbal collocations. Regarding the lexical-semantic and translational aspects, there are several cases of collocational variation. They vary mainly in the lexical and morphosyntactic levels and are structured in prepositional and noun phrases. We also observed collocations, in Portuguese and Spanish, which have words borrowed from English in at least one of its constituents. In addition, there are a large number of collocations which have orthographic similarities among the languages. In our analysis, we defend that specialized collocations and its lexical variants cannot be seen as perfect synonyms, since we cannot state categorically that one can replace the other in any context. According to the data, specialized collocations may establish among themselves a parasynonymic relationship, that is, they share semes in common. We also argue that there may be a functionally equivalence among the collocations described, considering the fact that they involve the legal and commercial lexicon of distinct languages, resulted from distinct linguistic and cultural traditions, which can entail changes, even though subtle, in their meanings that cannot allow us to understand them as fully equivalents. The research presented is relevant to the legal and commercial phraseology, as the description of syntagmatic and lexical-semantic patterns as well as translational aspects of collocations can aid in the recognition of linguistic features of the area, since there are few works developed, especially regarding specialized and extended collocations. Moreover, its practical outcome, that is, the glossary proposal can also bring contributions to translators, learners and other interested parties in the translation and editing of documents in the languages studied.

Les flux, le droit et les politiques du commerce mondial, et les standards consensuels non étatiques applicables aux domaines tels que l’environnement, la santé, la sécurité, etc. s’influencent mutuellement. Ils affectent également les processus identifiés comme « gouvernance globale ». L’interface de ces trois thèmes a constitué le principal point d’intérêt de ma recherche. Dans cette thèse, mon objectif général était non seulement de décrire l’interface, les pratiques et les diverses conjonctures pertinentes du droit et des standards dans le contexte de la globalisation du commerce transfrontalier, mais aussi, et même surtout, de les évaluer d’une façon critique. L’idée-clé de ma thèse était d’inclure différents types de normativités non-juridiques globales dans le droit, et ensuite de les soumettre à une analyse de légitimité plus juste et plus cohérente. Les ambitions susmentionnées ont émergé car aujourd’hui, dans le désordre juridique global, les normativités hybrides échappent tout simplement à la plupart des approches traditionnelles de droit et de légitimité, ces derniers étant principalement construits sur les prémisses liées, directement ou indirectement, à la souveraineté de l’État moderne. Un résultat méthodologique général de cette réorientation se situe dans l’argument que le droit, ainsi réorienté, pourrait alors effectuer une tâche fondamentalement différente de celle qu’il aurait eu sur la base d’une théorie juridique plus traditionnelle (positiviste), plus descriptive (sociologique), ou plus normative (critique), si utilisées à elles seules. Le message principal des ambitions précitées est que le droit peut et doit être repensé de manière que tout type de normativités globales dotées d’impressionnante force normative et régulatrice, mais avec une légitimité sociale douteuse, puisse être inclut dans le droit, exactement aux fins d’évaluer leur légitimité vis-à-vis du public global. / World trade flows, law and policies and non-state voluntary standards relating to social imperatives, such as environment, health, safety, etc. influence each other. They also affect processes identified as ‘global governance’. These three themes constituted the major crossing point of interest of my research. In this thesis, my general aim was to not only describe the interface, practices, and various relevant occurrences of cross-border trade law and standards in the globalisation context, but also, and indeed especially, to critically assess them. The pivotal idea of my thesis was to include different kinds of global quasi-legal normativities into law, and to submit them to a more just and coherent legitimacy analysis. The abovementioned ambitions emerged because today, hybrid normativities in the global legal disorder simply escape most of more traditional approaches to law and legitimacy, which mainly draw on state sovereignty-related premises. A general methodological outcome of this re-orientation was that law might then carry a fundamentally different task than the one that it would have had on the basis of a traditional jurisprudential (positivist), a descriptive (sociological), or a normative (critical), account alone. The main normative message of the aforesaid ambitions was that law could and should be re-thought in a way that any kind of normativities with impressive global normative and regulatory force, yet with dubious social legitimacy, can be included in it exactly for the purposes of assessing their legitimacy vis-à-vis the global public.

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The second-hand vehicle market in Europe, America, and Japan has entered the mature period and showed the following market characteristic: 1.Large business volume and has formed effect of scale Volume of the second-hand vehicle business in developed countries is lot more than the volume of the new vehicle. Generally it is above a time. According to the summary statistics, the annual sales volume of American second-hand vehicle is already 2.5 times of its new vehicle sales volume, and the year sales volume of Japanese second-hand vehicle has continuously surpassed its new vehicle the sales volume for many years. Just because of huge second-hand vehicle market, the developed countries can maintain a stable and huge market of new vehicle market. The related data demonstrated that, in a mature auto market, the average of vehicle discard cycle is about 8 - 12 years, but the average of vehicle renew cycle is less than 4 years. It is obvious that the second-hand vehicle market has quite a few of the spaces to operate. 2.Lower price and balance the supply and demand quantity in the market The 21st century has become "the automobile society". Cars have become an essential transportation for the modern families, but consumers from different levels have different demands for cars. Part of the consumers, which from middle class and above mainly buy new cars. They pay more attention to the reliability of the vehicles instead of the price. Most of them would consider changing cars after four or five years when the reliability of the vehicle go down and the chance of accidental breakdown increase. But consumers, which are below the middle class, then take the second-hand car as the main consideration. It is because of the lower price consideration. The price of second-hand car is about half of a new car. It's still quite reliable to be used for two to four years. And the loss of depreciation value would be smaller than buying a new car. Such second-hand car is still possible to be sold once more after using. The price then would be only 20%-30% of a new one. Those cars are mainly sold to the people who have lower income or students who have no income. Moreover there are some older cars that even cost less, which costs only about 5%-10% of a new car. Although it is a must to spend certain money on maintenance costs, the total cost would still be the lowest. It is quite beneficial. Therefore the supply of second-hand vehicle is a little bit larger than the demand quantity. The price of the second-hand cars is also lower. That is to balance the supply and demand quantity in the market 3.The system organize well and promote the market to be developed Second-hand vehicle markets in the developed countries generally form a perfect purchasing and selling system. And that promotes the organization of second-hand auction and wholesale. Governments formulate related laws of second-hand vehicle trading to protect consumer's rights and interests. Each organization runs fairly and effective and that makes the price in second-hand vehicle markets of the developed countries tend to be stable. Consumers do not have to worry about the loss which is from the unstable value of vehicles. The value of second-hand vehicles affects the guarantee value of vehicles and the stimulation of buying new cars deep and far. The steady of second-hand vehicle markets has made new- and second-hand vehicle markets promote fairly well. The generality of second-hand vehicle markets in developing countries are: 1. Less source and higher price Because of the average income of the developing countries is lot more lower than the developed countries, the proportion of wanting to buy second-hand cars is lot more than the developed countries. Furthermore, vehicle renew cycle of these countries is longer than the developed countries. Therefore make the source of second-hand vehicle to be limited. And the situation of supply is unable to meet the demand is very common. It has made the price of second-hand vehicle become lot higher than the developed countries. Even though, the price of second-hand cars is still lower than new cars. Considering from the economy, second-hand cars are still popular. 2. The trading is flexible and the management is tend to be ruled day by day The main characteristic of the second-hand vehicle markets in developing countries is flexible trading. There are direct personal trading, store trading, and also auction trading. Anyhow they regulate and run by the market rules themselves. Although the second-hand vehicles markets have go along for many years, it is still immature. There is still a certain difference in scale, price, market standard, and market operation from developed countries. These countries have already realized this and are now trying to improve. They are endeavoring to regulate the law and the policy and also coordinating with the new- and second-hand markets. They are trying to regulate the price and balance the supply and demanding. These have made their trading way become closer to the developed countries. Market of Taiwan has also followed this tendency to Europe, America, and Japan. Comparing with the developed countries, the second-hand vehicle markets in Taiwan starts later but develops faster. The trading way is like the Eight Immortals crossing the sea, each one showing his special prowess. The trading pattern and the legal rules are still not soundness. The disputes happen quite often. Before the information of a new car has not fully exposed, it is risky to purchase second-hand car. Consumer could just be the last white mouse for the sellers and can only pray for himself. Making a comprehensive survey of second-hand vehicle markets in developed countries like America and Japan, the policy, the law and the coordination between the new- and second-hand vehicle markets are the main reason to make second-hand vehicle markets become prosperous in these countries. Because of the legal standard is incomplete in our country. The problem of asymmetric information exists in the market. And that makes the rights and the interests of consumers can not be protected when they purchase cars. This research is mainly investigating via interviews, related documents, and theories, and also case study and analyze. Then induces the system which can promote consumers' rights and interests and also to make consumers' rights and interests to be protected. Therefore they can feel at ease buying cars and also trying to provide proprietors a way to make reference of the system establishment.

Despite the implementation of legal prohibitions and regulatory policies to limit the commercial availability of lottery products to minors, published research continues to document a high prevalence of participation in and ease of access to lottery playing amongst adolescents. This study systematically investigated the influence of individual-level factors in vendor compliance with youth access statutes and policies for lottery and alcohol products. Six underage youths each attempted to purchase a lottery ticket, a beer, or both products together in the same 313 convenience stores, for a total of 1,219 purchase attempts. The results revealed that only a moderate proportion of vendors surveyed in this study were compliant with existing statutes and policies, and that gender and vendor age variables playa significant role in youth purchasing of lottery tickets and alcohol. These findings were interpreted in terms of their implications for strengthening regulatory policies and future research.