La fin de la guerre froide amorça une nouvelle ère de privatisation, de libéralisation et de dérégulation sans précédent. L’internet et les nombreuses autres avancées technologiques ont rapproché les citoyens du monde à un degré impressionnant. Le monde au XXIème siècle semble être plus interdépendant que jamais. De nombreuses problématiques contemporaines dépassent largement les contrôles et les frontières étatiques, des problématiques reliées par exemple aux investissements étrangers directs, aux droits de l’homme, à l’environnement, à la responsabilité sociale des entreprises, etc. La globalisation des marchés marque par ailleurs le recul de l’État face aux acteurs non étatiques. La société civile et les multinationales surgissent dès lors en tant que véritables partenaires dans l’ordre juridique international. Cela est illustré notamment par l’accès accordé aux multinationales/investisseurs à la justice internationale économique. Ces derniers ont la capacité de poursuivre un État qui violerait leurs droits marchands découlant d’un TBI devant une juridiction arbitrale internationale. Qu’en est-il par contre des droits non marchands violés par les investisseurs ? Cette étude explore les motifs militant pour un accès de la société civile à la justice internationale économique. Le but d’un tel accès serait d’opposer les droits non marchands, suscités par des problématiques inhérentes à la globalisation des marchés, à la fois à l’égard des États et à l’égard des multinationales, et auxquelles aucune réponse étatique unilatérale ou interétatique ne peut remédier adéquatement. / The end of the cold war marked an unprecedented new era of privatisation, liberalisation, and deregulation. Internet and the numerous technological advancements have brought citizens of this world closer at an astonishing degree. The world in the XXIst century seems more interdependent than ever before. A number of contemporary problematic issues significantly bypass State controls and borders. They are for instance related to foreign direct investment, human rights, the environment, corporate social responsibility, etc. Globalisation marks the State’s retreat in favour of non-state actors. In this light, civil society and multinationals appear as significant partners in the international legal order. This is in part reflected in the access given to multinationals/investors to international trade law justice. They have the capacity to file claims against states in front of international arbitration jurisdictions for violations of their trade rights as provided under BITs. However, what about the non-trade rights that may have been violated by investors? The present study explores the motives that would justify civil society’s access to international trade law justice. The purpose of such access would be to stand for non-trade rights, raised by problematic issues inherent to globalization, against States and multinationals, and that cannot be remedied solely through unilateral nor interstate efforts.

Pharmaceutical drugs are often hailed as the poster child for the proposition that patents foster accelerated rates of innovation. This sentiment stems, in large part, from the significantly high research and development (R&D) costs endemic to the pharmaceutical sector. I argue that if the role of the patent regime is one of fostering higher amounts of investment in the R&D process, it is better served by a direct investment protection regime, where the protection does not depend upon whether or not the underlying idea behind the drug is 'new' and 'inventive', the two central tenets of patent law. Rather, any drug that successfully makes it past the regulatory filter ought to be entitled to protection, since its discovery and development entail significant investment and risk. Owing to the inadequacy of the current patent regime in appropriately protecting intensive pharmaceutical R&D investments from free-riders, I propose a comprehensive investment protection regime that protects all the investment costs incurred during the drug discovery and development process. Though similar to existing data protection regimes in some respects, it differs in others. Firstly, it enables a recovery of all R&D costs, and not only costs associated with clinical trials. Secondly, unlike patents and data exclusivity which offer uniform periods of protection, it rewards investments in a proportionate manner, wherein drug originators are entitled to protection against free-riders only until such time as they recoup their specific investments and earn a rate of return on investment that is dependent on the health value of the drug. Given that a pure market exclusivity based investment protection regime is likely to foster excessive pricing and subject the market to the dictates of a single firm, I advocate a compensatory liability model based on a novel cost sharing methodology, where follow-on entrants are free to manufacture the drug, but must pay a reasonable amount of compensation to the originator.

This article addresses the issue referred to the modernization of the regulation on Bankruptcy matters in Peru. The authors propose the adoption of the Model of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law by Peru to help update our national legislation on cross-border insolvency and create more efficient ways of recognizing insolvency proceedings that have been started abroad. Finally, the authors propose the updating of the nomenclature, which are used in certain provisions of the Civil Code, as part of the pending agenda on Bankruptcy Law in Peru. / El presente artículo aborda la temática referida a la modernización de la regulación en materia Concursal en el Perú. Los autores plantean la adopción de la Ley Modelo de la Comisión de las Naciones Unidas para el Derecho Mercantil Internacional por el Perú para ayudar a actualizar nuestra legislación nacional en materia de insolvencias transfronterizas y crear nuevas formas más eficientes de reconocimiento de procedimientos concursales iniciados en el extranjero. Por último, los autores proponen la actualización de la nomenclatura utilizada en ciertas disposiciones del Código Civil, como parte de la agenda pendiente en materia de Derecho Concursal en el Perú.

Au cours du XIXe siècle, le droit de la faillite institué comme un mécanisme de sanction des débiteurs professionnels faillis prend progressivement en compte la situation du débiteur ainsi que sa bonne ou sa mauvaise foi afin d’évaluer son degré de culpabilité. À Lyon, l’évolution de la norme de la faillite et de sa pratique le tribunal de commerce fait apparaître une prise en considération grandissante de l’humanité du débiteur, accompagnée parfois par une réforme légale impulsée par l’initiative des juges consulaires lyonnais. Ceux-ci prennent l’initiative d’instituer des mesures contra legem afin de protéger les commerçants de bonne foi victimes d’une conjoncture provoquant une crise économique majeure qui génère des faillites en cascade.Au lieu de mettre en place une réforme en profondeur du droit de la faillite réclamée par les praticiens, les docteurs, la jurisprudence ainsi que par les justiciables, le législateur n’institue que des mesures provisoires et palliatives. Son inertie renforce la conviction des juges consulaires lyonnais que leur pratique s’impose comme une solution appropriée pour réduire les conséquences néfastes de l’inaction du législateur non seulement sur la situation des commerçants faillis mais aussi sur la société et l’économie de la ville de Lyon. / During the nineteenth century, the bankruptcy law instituted as a sanction mechanism of bankrupt debtors professionals has been gradually taking into account the debtor's situation and his good or bad faith in order to assess the degree of guilt.In Lyon, the evolution of the standard of bankruptcy and practice of the Commercial Court reveals a growing consideration of debtor’s humanity, sometimes accompanied by a legal reform promoted by the initiative of consular judges of Lyon. They take the initiative to institute measures contrary to the law to protect bona fide traders victims of a situation causing a major economic crisis that generates cascading bankruptcies.Instead of putting in place a comprehensive reform of bankruptcy law claimed by practitioners, doctors, case law and by litigants, the legislator establishes only temporary and palliative measures. Its inertia reinforces the conviction of consular judges of Lyon that their practice has established itself as an appropriate solution to reduce the adverse consequences of the inaction of the legislature not only on the situation of failed traders, but also on society and the economy of the city from Lyon.

Magister Legum - LLM / The United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods 1980 (CISG) seeks to provide a standard uniform law for international sales contracts. This research paper analyses the rationale behind South Africa’s delay in deciding whether to ratify the CISG, and its possible effect on trade with other nations. The CISG drafters hoped that uniformity would remove barriers to international sales thereby facilitating international trade. Ratification of the convention is only the beginning of uniformity; uniformity must then be extended to its application and interpretation. Not all countries have ratified the Convention yet they engage in international trade in goods: this state of affairs presents challenges since traders have to choose a national law that applies to their contract where CISG does not apply. This takes traders back to the undesirable pre-CISG era. On the other hand, those States that have ratified the convention face different challenges, the biggest one being a lack of uniformity in its interpretation. The problem of differing interpretations arises because some CISG Articles are vague leading to varied interpretations by national courts. Further, the CISG is still largely misunderstood and some traders from States that have ratified CISG exclude it from application. South Africa can only ratify an international instrument such as the CISG, after it has been tabled before Parliament, and debated upon in accordance with the Constitution. CISG’s shortcomings, particularly regarding interpretation, make it far from certain that CISG would pass the rigorous legislative process. Nonetheless, the Constitution of South Africa requires the South African courts and legislature to promote principles of international law. The paper, therefore, examines, whether the Legislature has a constitutional obligation to ratify CISG. South Africa’s membership of the WTO requires that it promote international trade by removing trade barriers. It is, therefore, vital for South Africa to be seen to be actively facilitating international trade. Even though the trade benefits which flow from ratification are not always visible in States that have ratified the CISG, there is some doubt whether South Africa can sustain its trade relations without ratifying the CISG. The paper shows that the formation of contracts under the South African common law is very similar to formation as set out under Part II of the CISG and if the CISG were to be adopted in South Africa, no major changes would be needed in this regard. International commercial principles as an alternative to the CISG still require a domestic law to govern the contract and would, therefore, leave South African traders in the same position they are in currently, where their trading relations are often governed by foreign laws. Ratifying CISG would certainly simplify contract negotiations particularly with regard to governing law provisions. Overall the advantages of ratification for South Africa far outweigh the shortcomings of the CISG, and ratification will assist in ensuring that South African traders get an opportunity to enter the international trade arena on an equal platform with traders from other nations. / South Africa

Les divergences réglementaires entre les États constituent aujourd’hui l’un des obstacles majeurs à l’échange de biens et de services à travers le monde et nuisent à la compétitivité sur le marché international. Cette étude vise à analyser les nouvelles tendances dans le domaine des traités de libre-échange et à étudier le concept de la coopération réglementaire à laquelle font référence certains instruments juridiques de régulation économique modernes. Nous nous concentrerons sur le cas de l’Accord économique et commercial global (AECG) étant donné sa contemporanéité et son entrée en vigueur progressive. La première section considèrera le cadre réglementaire établi par le l’Accord Général sur les Tarifs Douaniers et le Commerce (GATT) et l’Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC). La deuxième section se penchera sur l’étude du concept de la coopération réglementaire et des mécanismes juridiques qui sont généralement employés afin d’atteindre une convergence normative. La troisième section examinera de près l’AECG, en passant par l’historique des négociations entourant sa mise en œuvre ainsi qu’une analyse détaillée de ses chapitres et dispositions les plus pertinents à notre étude. Dans la quatrième et finale section, nous chercherons à élucider l’apport des accords de libre-échange de troisième génération, et plus particulièrement du vent de changement qu’ils ont insufflé aux relations commerciales contemporaines, avec leur apport en matière d’intégration réglementaire. / Regulatory divergence between States represents one of the major barriers to the exchange of goods and services across the world and undermines competitiveness in the international market. The goal of this research is to examine emerging developments in the field of free trade treaties (FTAs) and to study the principle of regulatory cooperation, as set out in a number of modern economic regulatory instruments. We will focus on the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) given its novelty and gradual coming into effect. The first section will consider the regulatory framework established by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). The second section will examine the concept of regulatory cooperation and the legal mechanisms that are commonly used to achieve normative convergence. The third section will take a closer look at CETA, including an analysis of the history surrounding its implementation, as well as a thorough review of the chapters and provisions most relevant to our study. In the fourth and final section, we will aim to explain the contribution of third generation free trade agreements, particularly in regard to their contribution in terms of regulatory integration.

Diamonds have played a dual role in society since their discovery. On the one hand, they have brought smiles to the faces of many exhibiting love, beauty, wealth and brilliance. On the other hand, they have been at the heart of many conflicts. This juxtaposition has different impacts in usage. For those whom diamonds were a positively and morally accepted benefit, it did not present problems. Where diamonds spurned conflicts, it caused harm to lives and territories. Human rights abuses became the cause of international conflicts. Humanitarian interventions appeared on the United Nations Security Council agenda. The United Nations had to address the human rights abuses and had to confront the escalation of human rights abuses. Human rights abuses reached significant proportions forcing the application of humanitarian intervention mechanisms. Control of the diamond trade industry was fast becoming an item on many international peace keeping agendas. International organisations such as the World Trade Organisation, the International Criminal Court, the African Union, the European Union, the World Diamond Council and the United Nations have all tried to influence the diamond trade and its consequential impact upon human rights. These organisations are regulated by law, making them a preferred mechanism for establishing accountability for human rights abuse, arising from the illegal trade in rough diamonds and the maintenance of peace and security.Pressed by the United Nations and, De Beers; NGOs; the Partnership Africa Canada and Global Witness; the World Diamond Council; and many States initiated a formalised voluntary international certification scheme for the export and import of diamonds. Thisinternational certification scheme for the trade of rough diamonds became known as the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme. The Kimberley Process Certification Scheme has been hailed as a milestone in the diamond trade industry. Simultaneously, the Certification Scheme has been criticised for its inefficacy in regulating the legitimate trade of rough diamonds. Whether the Certification Scheme in its present form is suitable to address the crisis in the trade of rough diamonds is central to this study. Thus, the characterisation, monitoring, implementation and evolution of the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme will be examined. / Jurisprudence / LLD

The significant role of multinational corporations (MNCs) in the international political economy necessitates innovative ways to study their activities and relationships with states. This study, therefore, analyses the foreign policy of the South African government in Africa during President Thabo Mbeki’s administration – 1999 to 2008 – juxtaposed with the corporate diplomatic strategies of selected retail MNCs. The MNCs – Shoprite Holdings Limited, Massmart Holdings Limited, Woolworths Holdings Limited and Pick n Pay Holdings Limited – are treated as actors. The study uncovers the nature and extent of coalescences and divergences of strategies between the government and the MNCs. It also finds divergences between government’s policy pronouncements and interests. For example, the government’s plan to craft a code of good business practice is found to be in conflicts with its support for multilateralism. The study lays the basis for a new model to study diplomatic strategies of firms and governments. / Political Sciences / M.A. (International Politics)

The needs of the free trade regime and governments' legitimate regulatory aims in the area of public health protection conflict. Government health measures create barriers to free trade and are thus disciplined by the trade regime. This conflict is addressed in the rules of the World Trade Organization, in the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. This Agreement uses science to mediate the conflict. The reason for the reliance on science is the view that it provides a neutral, universally-valid discipline and that thus the results of testing health measures for scientific validity would be acceptable to both parties in a dispute. This uncritical approach towards science is called into question. An analysis of the relevant science-based disciplines of the SPS Agreement and their interpretation in WTO dispute settlement shows the flaws in this system. A re-evaluation of the WTO rules governing health regulation is called for. / Law / LL.M.

每當承辦知名企業間因廣告行銷而發生不公平競爭的法律爭議時，作者最反覆思考的問題不外是：究竟一則比較廣告在什麼程度以內，與其他競爭對手間的產品比較以及資訊揭露，對消費者來說是最有利，而且對競爭者來說是最公平的？換句話說，就是使用「比較廣告」這樣的爭議性行銷方法，在什麼樣的限度內，是比較可以恰如其分地，一方面完成它原本行銷應達成的目的，帶給消費者充分且必要的消費資訊，另一方面也顧及了競爭法下的公平尺度，沒有用超過目的之手法損及競爭者；接著的問題是，現行國內的公平交易法規是不是已恰如其分地扮演了這樣一個尺度呢？ 　　基於以上目的，本研究分別從行銷管理、公平交易及主要國家競爭法立法例的觀點，廣泛探討相關文獻，切入檢視過去與比較廣告有關的研究，發現過去文獻對比較廣告展現創意的「不安全領域」和「安全領域」之探討，確實不足。故本文採用質性研究中的個案法及文件分析，藉由觀察公平會自1992年至2007年間的相關案例，選出指標案例共十二則，希望對透過實際個案之處分書或不處分書的解析，探討我國公平會對比較廣告違法性的認定標準，進一步釐清不法比較廣告與創意比較廣告的分際。 　　藉由觀察公平會對該十二個指標案例作成決定時所示的見解，本研究發現公平會對於其持以處分或不處分比較廣告的準則，已衍然成形。首先，如果一個比較廣告有「真實性原則」、「客觀性原則」或「資訊充分揭露原則」三原則中，任一原則的違反，導致成為一個不真實、不客觀或資訊未充分揭露（或兼具其中二者或三者）的比較廣告時，即已經存在「不法元素」，可能構成違法，此形成本研究之命題一。其次，公平會也明白宣示了比較廣告內容或方式的「安全區域」，本研究將此一發現名為公平會的「愈抽象愈安全原則」，並且認為此處即為比較廣告應該盡情展現創意之所在，此形成本研究之命題二。作者並盼望繼起的有志之士，往後能嘗試大膽建立各種假設，小心驗證本研究已經建立的兩項命題，以檢視其周延性和正確性，俾供企業未來在行銷上運用比較廣告時，能大膽展現創意，但又不致於違法的參考，同時亦對公平會及業者分別提出建議。 / Every time when Author undertakes unfair competition disputes between well-known enterprises arisen out of advertising and marketing, the question the Author will ponder over and over is: with respect to the comparative advertising, in terms of product comparison and information disclosure with other rivals, to which extent the comparative advertising will be the most beneficial advertising to the consumers and the most impartial advertising to the rivals. In other words, to which extent can “comparative advertising” be used appropriately, on one hand complete goals the original marketing was intended to achieve, bring sufficient and necessary consumption information to the consumers, on the other hand take into account of fairness criterion under competition law without application of technique beyond its original purpose which would cause damage to the rivals. Then the next question is: whether the existing Fair Trade Law has adequately set forth said criterion? Based on the above goals, from respective viewpoints in marketing management, fair trade and legislation precedent of competition laws of major countries, the author, through extensive probing into past documentary records and reviews of past researches related to comparative advertising, realized that researches on “unsafe territory” and “safe territory” to show creativity of comparative advertising in past documentary records are not sufficient. Therefore, the author has adopted case method and document analysis used in qualitative research. From among the relevant cases handled by the Fair Trade Commission between 1992 and 2007, the author has chosen twelve distinctive cases, aiming to probe into criterion for determination of violation of comparative advertising by Fair Trade Commission of the ROC, and further verification of the differences between unlawful comparative advertising and creative comparative advertising through study and analysis of disposition or non-disposition decision of each individual case. Upon review of administrative interpretations rendered by the Fair Trade Commission towards said twelve distinctive cases, the author realized that rules governing disposition of comparative advertising by the Fair Trade Commission has taken shape. First of all, when a comparative advertising breaches either the “principle of truthfulness”, the “principle of objectiveness” or the “principle of information disclosure”, the comparative advertising will become an unreal, non-objective or non-disclosed comparative advertising (or both or all), some “illegal elements” have occurred, which may constitute violation of law, this forms the first proposition of this thesis. Secondly, the Fair Trade Commission has clearly announced “safety areas” of content or manner of the comparative advertising, the author names this discovery as “more abstract more safe principle”, and believe this is the area where comparative advertising shall exert its best effort to show its creativity, which forms the second proposition of this thesis. The author expects that future researchers will be able to create hypotheses, examine and verify two propositions this thesis have already built up, in order to investigate its thoroughness and correctness, so that enterprises could bravely demonstrate its creativity when applying comparative advertising for the marketing.