O pão é um dos alimentos mais consumidos na dieta humana, estando presente na mesa de diferentes povos e classes sociais. Além do seu aspecto apetitoso, o pão apresenta importante valor nutricional, uma vez que é fonte de carboidratos, proteínas, vitaminas e sais minerais. Na medida em que a panificação se estendeu do processo artesanal para a escala industrial, a utilização de agentes melhoradores de farinha vem se ampliando em função da necessidade de melhorar as características de processo e a vida útil dos produtos obtidos. Durante décadas, enzimas foram adicionadas à farinha na produção de pães com a finalidade de melhorar seu volume, sabor, aroma, estrutura da casca e do miolo, maciez e vida-deprateleira. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a influência da adição de enzimas na qualidade de pães brancos e pães ricos em fibras através do uso de associações enzimáticas de transglutaminase, xilanase e amilase. Foram preparadas 17 formulações para cada tipo de pão, com diferentes concentrações das enzimas, de acordo com o planejamento experimental 23 e para análise foi utilizada a metodologia de superfície de resposta. As etapas básicas da produção dos pães foram: pesagem e amassamento; divisão, boleamento e descanso; modelagem; fermentação; forneamento e resfriamento. As farinhas com a adição da associação enzimática e padrão foram submetidas às análises de umidade, cinzas, teor de glúten, cor, absorção de água, estabilidade, elasticidade e extensibilidade. Todas as 17 formulações e a formulação padrão para pão branco e pão rico em fibra foram analisadas sensorialmente, através da Análise Descritiva Quantitativa (ADQ), e físico-quimicamente, através das análises de umidade, cinzas, textura, cor, altura das fatias e volume específico. Os resultados obtidos no presente trabalho mostraram que a adição destas enzimas não é necessária para se ter um pão com boa qualidade e com características exigidas pelos consumidores. Observou-se que o efeito da associação das três enzimas testadas não foi significativo, pois na maioria das características avaliadas o melhor resultado foi o apresentado na amostra padrão, sem adição de enzimas. / Bread is one of the most consumed foods in the human diet. It is found on the table of people from different cultures and social classes. Besides its appetizing aspect, bread also presents important nutritional value, since it is a source of carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and mineral salts. As bread-making has gone from the handmade process to the industrial scale, the usage of bread enhancements has increased in order to attend the necessity of improving process’s characteristics and lifespan of the obtained product. Throughout many decades, enzymes were added to the flour during bread’s production with the objective of increasing its volume, taste, aroma, crust’s and crumb’s structure, softness and lifespan. The present work is proposed to evaluate how the addition of enzymes can influence on the quality of white and wholemeal bread through the use of enzymatic associations of transglutaminase, xylanase and amylase. 17 formulations have been prepared for each type of bread, each one with different enzyme concentrations, according to the experimental planning 2³. The methodology used for the analysis was the Response Surface Methodology – RSM. The basic steps of production were: weighing and kneading; dividing, ball making and resting; molding; fermenting; baking and cooling. Both the standard flours and the ones with the addition of enzymatic associations were submitted to humidity, ashes, gluten level, color, water absorption, stability, elasticity, and extensibility analysis. All 17 formulations and the standard formulation for white bread and wholemeal bread have been submitted to sensorial evaluation using Quantitative Descriptive Analysis. They have also been physically and chemically tested through the analysis of humidity, ashes, texture, color, height of the slices and specific volume. The results obtained from this research proved that the addition of those enzymes is not necessary in order to make good quality bread with characteristics demanded by its consumers. It has been observed that the effect of the association of the 3 tested enzymes was not significant. The standard sample - free of enzyme addition - presented the best results for most of the evaluated characteristics.

Orientador: Hélia Harumi Sato / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-16T16:22:18Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Lima_EvandroAntoniode_M.pdf: 2108461 bytes, checksum: 6b52a40625238916bf0ef94067896ee2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: A transglutaminase microbiana (MTGase; EC 2.3.2.13) é uma enzima capaz de catalisar a formação de ligações covalentes cruzadas entre proteínas, peptídeos e várias aminas primárias através da reação de acil transferência entre resíduos de glutamina e lisina. A incorporação de ligações covalentes cruzadas entre proteínas por ação da transglutaminase vem sendo empregada pela indústria alimentícia para modificar principalmente a textura, a viscosidade e a capacidade de formação de gel de alimentos. Este trabalho teve como principal objetivo estudar a estabilidade térmica, o efeito de inibidores e ativadores, a concentração e a purificação da transglutaminase microbiana produzida pela linhagem Streptomyces sp. CBMAI 837. No estudo da estabilidade térmica da enzima verificou-se que a transglutaminase de Streptomyces sp. CBMAI 837 é uma enzima termossensível, estável em temperaturas abaixo de 40°C e rapidamente inativada acima de 50°C. Parâmetros cinéticos e termodinâmicos da desnaturação térmica da enzima foram determinados para as seis temperaturas estudadas. Os tempos de meia-vida da enzima a 55 e 60°C foram estimados em 3,5 e 1,9 minutos, respectivamente. A influência de alguns compostos no aumento da estabilidade térmica da enzima foi investigada, sendo verificado que a adição de EDTA e KCl na concentração de 1% e de cisteína e glutationa na concentração de 0,1% aumentaram a estabilidade térmica da transglutaminase durante incubação a 45°C por 30 minutos. O efeito de compostos como etanol, ativadores e inibidores enzimáticos na atividade da MTGase de Streptomyces sp. CBMAI 837 foi estudado. O etanol na concentração de 10% (v:v) apresentou pouco efeito na atividade enzimática, enquanto que concentrações acima de 40% (v:v) provocaram rápida inativação da enzima. A MTGase foi ativada na presença de EDTA e cisteína e inativada na presença de iodoacetamida e ácido cloromercuribenzóico, sugerindo que esta é uma enzima cálcio independente com um resíduo de cisteína no sítio ativo. No estudo da concentração da MTGase foram avaliados diferentes métodos, sendo verificado que a precipitação com sulfato de amônio a 80% de saturação foi o método mais efetivo, possibilitando a concentração do sobrenadante de cultivo cerca de 4,5 vezes com rendimento de 142%. A aplicação da preparação enzimática bruta concentrada de MTGase de Streptomyces sp. CBMAI 837 em proteína texturizada de soja apresentou efeito similar ao da enzima comercial Activa® TG-BP quando aplicada nas mesmas condições. Na purificação da MTGase de Streptomyces sp. CBMAI 837 em coluna de afinidade Blue Sepharose CL-6B foram separadas 3 frações com atividade de transglutaminase (TG-BS1, TG-BS2 e TG-BS3), indicando a presença de isoenzimas. A massa molecular da MTGase presente nas frações purificadas TG-BS2 e TG-BS3 foi estimada em cerca de 35 KDa por SDS-PAGE. As três frações obtidas foram caracterizadas quanto ao pH ótimo de atividade enzimática. Foi observado que a fração parcialmente purificada TG-BS1 apresentou atividade ótima em pH 10,0 e um segundo pico de atividade em pH 6,0, enquanto as frações purificadas TG-BS2 e TG-BS3 apresentaram pH ótimo de atividade em pH 6,5 e também um segundo pico de atividade em pH 10,0 / Abstract: The microbial transglutaminase (MTGase, EC 2.3.2.13) is an enzyme capable of catalyzing the formation of covalent cross-links among proteins, peptides and various primary amines by reaction of acyl transfer between glutamine and lysine residues. The incorporation of covalent cross-links between proteins by the action of transglutaminase has been used by the food industry to modify especially the texture, viscosity and gel forming ability of foods. This work aimed to study the thermal stability, effect of inhibitors and activators, concentration and purification of microbial transglutaminase produced by strain Streptomyces sp. CBMAI 837. It was observed in the study of thermal stability of the enzyme that the transglutaminase from Streptomyces sp. CBMAI 837 is a thermosensitive enzyme, stable at temperatures below 40°C and rapidly inactivated above 50°C. Kinetic and thermodynamic parameters of thermal denaturation of the enzyme were determined for six temperatures. It was estimated that the half-life times of the enzyme at 55 and 60°C were 3.5 and 1.9 minutes, respectively. The influence of compounds to increase the thermal stability of the enzyme was investigated, and it was found that the addition of EDTA and KCl at a concentration of 1% and cysteine and glutathione at a concentration of 0.1% increased the thermal stability of transglutaminase during the incubation at 45°C for 30 minutes. The effect of compounds such as ethanol, activators and inhibitors on enzymatic activity of MTGase from Streptomyces sp. CBMAI 837 was studied. The ethanol concentration 10% (v/v) had little effect on enzyme activity, while concentrations above 40% (v/v) resulted in rapid inactivation of the enzyme. The MTGase was activated in the presence of EDTA and cysteine and inactivated in the presence of iodoacetamide and chloromercuribenzoic acid, suggesting that this is a calcium independent enzyme with a cysteine residue at the active site. Different methods were evaluated in the study of the concentration of MTGase, confirming that the precipitation with ammonium sulfate at 80% saturation of the culture supernatant was the method more effective, being concentrated this enzyme about 4.5 fold with a yield of 142%. The application of crude enzyme preparation of MTGase from Streptomyces sp. CBMAI 837 concentrated by ammonium sulfate in texturized soy protein showed a similar effect to the one of commercial enzyme Activa® TG-BP when applied under the same conditions. Three fractions with transglutaminase activity (TG-BS1, TG-BS2 e TG-BS3) were separated in the purification of MTGase from Streptomyces sp. CBMAI 837 in column affinity Blue Sepharose CL-6B, indicating the presence of isoenzymes. The molecular mass of MTGase present in the purified fractions TG-BS2 e TG-BS3 was estimated at about 35 KDa by SDS-PAGE. The three fractions were characterized by optimum pH of enzymatic activity. It was observed that the partially purified fraction TG-BS1 showed optimal activity at pH 10.0 and a second peak of activity at pH 6.0, while the purified fractions TG-BS2 e TG-BS3 showed optimum pH activity at pH 6.5 and also a second peak of activity at pH 10.0 / Mestrado / Mestre em Ciência de Alimentos

Orientador: Fernanda Paula Collares-Queiroz / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-16T05:58:10Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Gragnani_MarcoAntonioLefevre_M.pdf: 7651041 bytes, checksum: 7fa59de3bac1eecf3a788631b8dc0cc1 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: A produção e o consumo de pães de forma no Brasil crescem continuamente. Assim como a maioria dos produtos de panificação, sua fabricação requer a utilização de farinhas com características específicas para obtenção de produtos sensorialmente aceitáveis. Até hoje, a farinha de trigo é a única capaz de produzir pães com essas características. Os estudos de substitutos para farinha de trigo esbarram em dificuldades técnicas, que dificultam a formação de uma rede protéica estável, capaz de desempenhar um papel satisfatório na estruturação do pão e na retenção dos gases produzidos durante a fermentação. O triticale, cereal resultante do cruzamento do trigo com centeio, apresenta características bastante semelhantes aos seus progenitores, sem, contudo, ter a capacidade de substituir o trigo em grandes quantidades na produção de pães de forma. A utilização da enzima transglutaminase microbiana (MTGase) na área de panificação já mostrou-se eficiente no fortalecimento da rede de glúten, permitindo, além da utilização de farinhas fracas em produtos que necessitam de farinha forte, a incorporação de novas fontes protéicas nesses alimentos. O objetivo deste projeto foi avaliar a viabilidade tecnológica da utilização da MTGase para produzir pães de forma com a maior substituição de farinha de trigo por farinha de triticale possível, apresentando as mesmas características do pão de forma padrão. Inicialmente, as duas farinhas, foram caracterizadas pela realização de análises reológicas (farinográficas e extensográficas), teor de glúten, falling number e cor. Foi realizada a produção de pães de forma padrão, apenas com farinha de trigo, para avaliação de qualidade e estudos comparativos posteriores. Foi elaborado um delineamento composto central rotacional (DCCR) com duas variáveis independentes:porcentagem de substituição de farinha de trigo por triticale (%TTC) e porcentagem de enzima transglutaminase microbiana em base seca de farinha (%MTGase). O delineamento incluiu onze ensaios, sendo quatro pontos fatoriais, quatro pontos axiais e três pontos centrais. Os resultados foram analisados por Metodologia de Superfície de Resposta. As variáveis dependentes desse estudo foram: (i) características reológicas das farinhas com enzima e (ii) qualidade dos pães de forma produzidos. Os pães foram analisados quanto ao volume específico, firmeza, umidade, atividade de água e cor do miolo (parâmetros L*, C* e h). Foi analisada também a influência do tempo de fermentação (35, 70 e 105 minutos) nessas respostas. Pela análise instrumental, observou-se ser inviável a produção dos pães de forma com 35 minutos de fermentação. Para os pães com maiores tempos, os parâmetros de volume específico e firmeza foram próximos ao pão padrão, mesmo com elevadas porcentagens de substituição da farinha de trigo, devido ao auxílio da enzima. Foram identificadas duas formulações, com quantidades máximas de substituição de farinha de trigo, que mostraram características semelhantes ao pão padrão, uma nos pães assados submetidos a 70 minutos de fermentação (60,64% de substituição de farinha de trigo por triticale e 0,65% de transglutaminase microbiana em base seca da farinha) e outra com 105 minutos de fermentação (71,28% de substituição de farinha de trigo por triticale,e 0,80% de porcentagem de transglutaminase microbiana em base seca da farinha). Essas formulações foram submetidas a testes de aceitação e intenção de compra por 72 provadores, que as avaliaram nos quesitos: modo global, aparência, aroma, sabor e textura. Os resultados mostraram que a substituição da farinha de trigo por triticale com a adição da enzima, em valores iguais aos das duas formulações escolhidas, pode ser realizada sem alterações significativas (p < 0,05) na intenção de compra dos consumidores. Entretanto, o pão de forma com 105 minutos de fermentação se mostrou mais próximo ao pão padrão nas análises instrumentais, e uma leve alteração na aceitação da textura foi evidenciada na sensorial obtendo média ¿gostei¿ (70 minutos), enquanto o pão padrão e a formulação com 105 minutos de fermentação obtiveram ¿gostei muito¿. O estudo mostrou que é possível substituir até 71,28% de farinha de trigo por triticale, utilizando a enzima transglutaminase microbiana, na produção de pães de forma de qualidade e sem aumentar o custo para os fabricantes / Abstract: The production of loaf breads in Brazil grows continuously. Like the majority of the bakery products, its manufacture requires the usage of flour with specific characteristics to result in sensory acceptable products. Until today, wheat flour is the only flour capable to produce loaf breads with those characteristics. Researches for wheat flour substitutes face on technical limitations, that interfere on the formation of a stable protein network, capable to play a satisfactory role in the bread structure and gas retention produced during fermentation. The triticale, a cereal resultant from the crossing of wheat and rye, has very similar characteristics to its progenitors, without, however, the ability to substitute wheat in great quantities in loaf bread production. The use of microbial transglutaminase (MTGase) in bakery products has been studied as an efficient empowering of the gluten network, allowing, besides the usage of weaker flours in products that requires strong flours, the incorporation of new protein sources in those foods. The objective of this project was to evaluate the technological viability to use MTGase to make loaf breads with the highest wheat flour substitution as possible, showing the same characteristics as a wheat flour loaf bread. Initially, both flours were characterized by rheological analysis (farinographics and extensographics), gluten index, falling number and color. Standard loaf bread with 100% wheat flour was produced for later quality evaluation and result comparison. A central composite rotational design (CCRD) was made with two independent variables: substitution percentage of wheat flour by triticale flour (%TTC) and the microbial transglutaminase enzyme percentage on dry flour basis (%MTGase). The design included eleven tests: four factorial points, four axial points and tree central points. The results were analyzed by Response Surface Methodology. The dependent variables were: (i) rheological characteristics of the flours with enzyme and (ii) the quality of the produced loaf breads. The breads were analyzed regarding its specific volume, firmness, humidity, water activity and bread crumb color (parameters L*, C*, and h). The influence of fermentation time (35, 70 and 105 minutes) was also studied on those responses. By instrumental analysis, it was found that it is not possible to produce triticale loaf breads with 35 minutes of fermentation. Breads with higher fermentation times presented specific volume and firmness values closer to standard loaf breads, even with high values of wheat flour substitution, due to the usage of the enzyme. Two formulations were identified, with maximum wheat flour substitution, one among the breads with 70 minute fermentation (wheat flour substitution: 60.64%, and microbial transglutaminase percentage (w/w): 0.65%) and another with 105 minute fermentation (wheat flour substitution: 71.28%, and microbial transglutaminase percentage (w/w): 0.80%). Those formulations were submitted to acceptance tests and intension of purchase by 72 costumers, who evaluated the global aspect, appearance, aroma, flavor and texture. The results shows that the substitution of wheat flour by triticale with addition of microbial transglutaminase, in the same values as the chosen formulations, can be made without significant alteration (p < 0.05) in the costumers' purchase intension. However, the loaf breads with 105 minute fermentation were closer to the standard loaf breads in the instrumental analysis, and a light alteration on the texture acceptance was evidenced in the sensorial tests, getting ¿liked¿ score (70 minutes), while the standards breads and 105 minute fermentation got ¿liked a lot¿. This study had shown that it is possible to substitute up to 71.28% of wheat flour by triticale, using microbial transglutaminase, to make loaf bread maintaining its quality without increasing the industrial costs / Mestrado / Mestre em Tecnologia de Alimentos

A desnutrição é um dos principais problemas de saúde pública do mundo, que contribui significativamente para o aumento da morbidade e mortalidade. Estima-se um total de 815 milhões de pessoas subnutridas no mundo, e apesar da melhoria dos recursos alimentares o número de pessoas desnutridas ainda é alarmante. Estudos de nosso laboratório tem demonstrado, em modelo murino de desnutrição proteica, hipoplasia medular com evidências histológicas de alterações na matriz extracelular (MEC) e permanência da célula-tronco hemopoética (CTH) na fase G0/G1 do ciclo celular em camundongos desnutridos. Dados deste trabalho evidenciaram alterações nas proteínas Akt /mTOR, que podem contribuir para o aumento da expressão autofágica nas CTHs e CTPHs (célula-tronco progenitora). A literatura demonstra que desequilíbrios nutricionais e metabólicos podem induzir ativação autofágica. Autofagia é um processo catabólico que participa da manutenção da homeostase celular, da MEC e na regulação das CTHs, dados deste trabalho demonstram diminuição da quantidade de CTH e CTPH em camundongos desnutridos sem a presença do gene Atg7, proteína participativa no processo autofágico. Já camundongos com deleção da transglutaminase 2 (TG2) e submetidos a privação de nutrientes por 24 horas , apresentou diminuição da quantidade de CTH e aumento da diferenciação da CTPH. A TG2 tem participação na impulsão e formação do fagóforo (processo inicial autofágico). Considerando que a desnutrição proteica leva a comprometimento da hemopoese, alterações no ciclo celular das CTHs e hipoplasia medular com pancitopenia periférica e que privação e ou jejum prolongado de nutrientes pode aumentar a atividade autofágica, concluímos nesse projeto que autofagia é importante para regulação da CTH e diferenciação da CTPH, entretanto a desnutrição proteica e privação de nutrientes estimula de maneira diversa o mecanismo de diferenciação da CTH. / Malnutrition is one of the world\'s major public health problems, which contributes significantly to increased morbidity and mortality. An estimated 815 million people are undernourished in the world, and despite the improvement in food resources the number of undernourished people is still alarming. Studies of our laboratory have demonstrated in murine model of protein malnutrition, medullary hypoplasia with histological evidence of extracellular matrix (ECM) changes and hemopoietic stem cell (HSC) stay in the G0/ G1 phase of the cell cycle in malnourished mice. Data from this work showed alterations in Akt / mTOR proteins, which may contribute to the increase of autophagic expression in HSC and HPC (progenitor stem cell). The literature demonstrates that nutritional and metabolic imbalances can induce autophagic activation. Autophagy is a catabolic process that participates in the maintenance of cellular homeostasis, ECM and in the regulation of HSC, data from this work demonstrate a decrease in the amount of HSC and HPC in malnourished mice without the presence of the Atg7 gene, a participatory protein in the autophagic process. Mice with transglutaminase 2 deletion (TG2) and submitted to nutrient deprivation for 24 hours showed a decrease in the amount of HSC and an increase in the differentiation of HPC. TG2 plays a role in the uptake and formation of phagophore (autophagic initial process). Considering that protein malnutrition leads to hemopoiesis, alterations in the cell cycle of HSC and spinal cord hypoplasia with peripheral pancytopenia, and that prolonged nutrient starvation or fasting may increase the autophagic activity, we conclude in this project that autophagy is important for regulation of HSC and differentiation of HPC, however, protein malnutrition and nutrient deprivation stimulate in a different way the mechanism of differentiation of HSC.

Les anticorps monoclonaux anti-tumoraux sont produits en cellules eucaryotes. Pour des raisons de temps et de cout, peu de candidats sont sélectionnés après des tests in vitro pour être produits à large échelle et testés in vivo. Pour tester plus d’anticorps plus rapidement, nous souhaitons produire des fragments variables simple chaine (scFv) chez E. coli. et les coupler à un fragment constant Fc par chimie click pour reconstituer des mimes d’immunoglobulines naturelles. Cette production indépendante des fragments est aussi un outil modulaire permettant de combiner rapidement un grand nombre scFv et de Fc différents.La chimie click est basée sur une réaction spécifique et de haut rendement entre un azide et un cyclooctyne. Les fragments ont donc été fonctionnalisés sur des résidus spécifiques (tags) par des composés chimiques pour introduire ces fonctions à leur extrémité. La première étape a consisté à introduire des tags en C-terminal du scFv anti-HER2 4D5 et en N-terminal du Fc d’IgG1 humaine. Les scFv ont été produits en cytoplasme d’E. coli à hauteur d’au moins 100 mg/L puis oxydés in vitro au sulfate de cuivre. Le fragment Fc a été produit classiquement en cellules humaines. Cinq réactions chimiques ou enzymatiques ont été optimisées et comparées en termes de spécificité et de rendement. La conjugaison d’une amine sur un tag glutamine catalysée par la transglutaminase microbienne a donné les meilleurs résultats. Le scFv a ainsi été dérivé par l’azadibenzocyclooctyne et le Fc par l’azide à hauteur de 60-70%. Lorsqu’ils sont mélangés, ces fragments forment un (scFv)2-Fc et un scFv-Fc avec des rendements globals respectifs de 10-20% et 20-30% après optimisation.Les mélanges scFv + Fc après réaction de chimie click se fixent de la même façon que le (scFv)2-Fc eucaryote au récepteur HER2. Il reste désormais à montrer que leur capacité à inhiber la prolifération d’une lignée exprimant ce récepteur est similaire. L’objectif final est d’obtenir une inhibition de croissance tumorale similaire sur des xénogreffes. / Anti-tumoral monoclonal antibodies are currently produced in eukaryotic cells. For cost and time reasons, a limited number of potential candidates are selected after in vitro tests. They are produced at large scale and then tested in vivo. To test more antibodies and more rapidly, we chose to produce single chain variable fragments (scFv) in bacteria, and to couple them to the eukaryotic constant fragment (Fc) thanks to click chemistry to reconstitute immunoglobulin-like compounds. For a given cost, this enables to produce and test in vivo a larger number of clones. This independent production of fragments is also a flexible tool allowing the combination of different Fc isotypes/allotypes with different scFvs.Click chemistry is based on a specific and high-yield reaction between and azide and a cyclooctyne. Therefore, antibody fragments were functionalised on specific residues (tags) by chemical linker so that each part will contain one of these chemical moieties at their extremity. The first step consisted in introducing tags into the anti-HER2 scFv 4D5 C-terminus and human IgG1 Fc N-termini sequences. The scFvs were produced with yields higher than 100 mg/L in the E. coli cytoplasm and in vitro oxidized with copper sulfate. The Fc fragment was classically produced in human cells. Five chemical or enzymatical reactions were optimised and compared in terms of specificity and yield. The coupling between an amine and a glutamine tag catalysed by microbial transglutaminase gave the best results. The scFv fragment was thus functionalised with an azadibenzocyclooctyne and the Fc fragment with an azide at 60-70%. When mixed together, these fragments formed a (scFv)2-Fc and a scFv-Fc with global yields respectively of 10-20% and 20-30% after optimisation.After the click reaction, the scFv + Fc mix binds to the HER2 receptor on the same way as the eukaryotic (scFv)2-Fc in terms of HER2-binding and proliferation inhibition capacity. Now, it must be demonstrated that their proliferation inhibition of a HER2-positive cell line is similar. The final aim is to get a similar tumour growth inhibition on murine xenografts.

La néphropathie à IgA (IgAN), est une maladie glomérulaire chronique primitive et principale cause d'insuffisance rénale dans le monde. Les causes et les facteurs aboutissant aux dépôts des complexes d'IgA1 sont inconnus. La forme soluble du récepteur (CD89s) complexée aux IgA joue un rôle clé dans la pathogenèse de cette maladie. Actuellement, aucun traitement spécifique n'est disponible et les options thérapeutiques sont limitées. La compréhension des mécanismes de la formation de ces complexes permettra d'envisager de nouvelles approches thérapeutiques. Dans cette perspective la première partie de cette thèse, met en évidence l'implication d'une protéine essentielle au développement de la N-IgA, la TG2, dans la régulation du clivage du CD89, et cela par la répression de la sérine phosphatase PP2A et l'activation de la métalloprotéase matricielle MMP-9. Dans les monocytes de patients l'expression diminuée de PP2A est associée à une tendance à l'augmentation de TG2, et inversement corrélée avec l'augmentation des complexes IgA1-CD89s. Afin de cibler ces complexes pathogéniques, un essai préclinique a été réalisé avec une protéase recombinante d'origine bactérienne clivant spécifiquement les IgA1 (IgA1-P). Les résultats ont formellement démontré la spécificité et l'efficacité de la protéase dans la réduction des complexes circulants et des dépôts d'IgA1 dans le modèle humanisé de N-IgA, associée à une diminution des marqueurs de l'inflammation et de l'hématurie. Les résultats ont mis en évidence le rôle de la dérégulation de l'axe TG2-PP2A-MMP-9 dans la formation des complexes IgA1-CD89s lors de la N-IgA, ainsi que l'efficacité de l'IgA1-P à éliminer ces complexes. Ces travaux suggèrent en plus du potentiel thérapeutique promoteur de l'IgA1-P, trois éventuelles cibles thérapeutiques envisageables pour la N-IgA. / IgA nephropathy (IgAN) is a mesangial proliferative primary glomerulonephritis and a major cause of end-stage renal disease. Causes and factors leading to mesangial IgA1 deposition are unknown. The soluble form of the receptor (sCD89) complexed with IgA plays a key role in the pathogenesis of the disease. There is currently no specific treatment available and the therapeutic options are limited. A better comprehension of the mechanisms regulating the formation of IgA1-sCD89 complexes will unveil new strategies for targeted therapies. In this perspective, the first part of this thesis highlights the implication of the transglutaminase 2 (TG2), a protein essential for the development of IgAN, in the regulation of CD89 cleavage, in a mechanism involving the repression of the serine phosphatase PP2A and the activation of the matrix metalloproteinase MMP-9. While a trend towards TG2 increase is observed, PP2A expression is reduced in monocytes obtained from IgAN patients compared to controls, and inversely correlates with the levels of circulating hIgA1-sCD89 complexes. In order to target these pathogenic complexes, a preclinical assay has been performed with a recombinant protease, a bacterial protein that selectively cleaves human IgA1 (IgA1-P). Results formally demonstrate the specificity and the efficacy of the IgA1-P in the reduction of circulating complexes and mesangial IgA1 deposition in a humanized mouse model of IgAN, associated with a reduction in inflammation and hematuria. Concluding, the results presented in this thesis show a role for the TG2-PP2A-MMP-9 axis in the dysregulated formation of IgA1-sCD89 complexes during IgAN development, as well as the effectiveness of IgA1-P in the elimination of these complexes. In addition to the potential therapeutic use of IgA1-P, this work suggests the TG2-PP2A-MMP-9 axis as a new therapeutic candidate for IgAN treatment.

Microbial transglutaminase (mTGase) is an acyltransferase that predominantly catalyses the formation of covalent cross-links between protein-bound glutamine and lysine residues, referred to as isopeptide bonds. This typically results in protein polymerisation. The enzymatic polymerisation of caseins, the major protein fraction in milk, has been studied for decades because of its potential to modify physical properties of fermented dairy products. It was suggested that cross-linked caseins form denser gel networks, resulting in higher gel stiffness and increased water holding capacity. However, other studies indicated that there is an optimal cross-linking degree and that prolonged incubation with mTGase results in converse effects. The aim of this research was to elucidate the mechanisms that cause these alterations of the gelation properties. Using non-micellar casein preparations at 27 g·kg-1 protein as model systems, structure-function-interrelationships were studied by molecular characterisation in combination with rheological studies of acid-induced gels. The results suggested that casein molecules self-associate in aqueous solutions and that cross-linking occurs predominantly within distinct casein particles. These cross-links contributed directly to the stiffness of acid-induced gels as indicated by an increased maximum storage modulus. However, in the presence of ions, introduced either prior to or after cross-linking, the highest value was shifted to shorter incubation times. This was attributed to an increased inflexibility of the casein particles with ongoing internal cross-linking, which made them incapable of conformational changes to compensate for the screening of attractive electrostatic interactions through other non-covalent interactions. The findings provide important information for the direct application of mTGase in milk as well as on the utilisation of cross-linked caseinates as additives in food processing. Further studies should be conducted at casein concentrations below self-association as well as above close packing of casein particles to include other cross-linking mechanisms. Moreover, potential applications in the non-food sector should be ascertained.

Cross-linking in soy proteins is hypothesised to have an impact on the texture of tofu. In vitro incubation showed soy proteins and its two fractions, glycinin and β-conglycinin, were cross-linked using glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, glyceraldehyde and transglutaminase (TGA). Increasing concentration of these carbonyl compounds and TGA, and temperature of the carbonyl compounds treatment, increased the reactivity of cross-linking. Glutaraldehyde was the most reactive in forming aggregated proteins, followed by formaldehyde and glyceraldehyde. Both carbonyl moieties of glutaraldehyde are believed to be essential for the rapid cross-linking reaction. In the unfractionated soy proteins, β-conglycinin had a higher reactivity than glycinin. In in vitro incubation using TGA, soy proteins served as good substrates for TGA, in which β-conglycinin was more susceptible to TGA than glycinin in the unfractionated soy proteins. The addition of TGA, and 1 and 2 mM glutaraldehyde prior to soymilk boiling in situ resulted in a small number of cross-linked proteins, which correspond to an increase in fracture force. The addition of glutaraldehyde after soymilk boiling resulted in a slight decrease in fracture force compared to the control. At higher concentrations of glutaraldehyde (15 and 30 mM), soy proteins were mostly cross-linked, regardless of addition before or after soymilk boiling. Highly cross-linked proteins resulted in a significant decrease in the fracture force. For TGA treatment, the fracture force was increased with increasing TGA concentration from 1000 to 5000 ppm, added either before or after soymilk boiling. However, the TGA treatment showed only a small quantity of cross-linking. It is hypothesised that TGA hydrolysed glutamine of proteins to glutamate and changed the functional properties of proteins. Upon examination of the microstructure, it was found that the TGA treatment resulted in a fine-stranded network, compact structure and less porosity. These characteristics resulted in a higher fracture force. In contrast, in the glutaraldehyde treatment, the network consisted of a higher porosity, loose network and diffuse structure, which gave lower fracture force. Thus, it appears that substrate modification to the structure of the soy proteins may have a greater impact than the number of cross-links. These findings are likely to have implications for production of soy products with a wide range of textures by manipulating the soy protein properties.

Thèse numérisée par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

<p>All metazoans possess an epithelial barrier that protects them from their environment and prevents loss off body fluid. Insects, which have an open circulatory system, depend on fast mechanism to seal wounds to avoid excessive loss of body fluids. As in vertebrates, and non-insect arthropods such as horseshoe crab and crustaceans, insects form a clot as the first response to tissue damage. Insect hemolymph coagulation has not been characterized extensively at the molecular level before, and the aim of my studies was to gain more knowledge on this topic. Morphological characterization of the<i> Drosophila </i>hemolymph clot showed that it resembles the clots previously described in other larger bodied insects, such as <i>Galleria mellonella</i>. The <i>Drosophila</i> clot is a fibrous network of cross-linked proteins and incorporated blood cells. The proteins building up the clot are soluble in the hemolymph or released from hemocytes upon activation. Since bacteria are caught in the clot matrix and thereby prevented from spreading it is likely that the clot serves as a first line of defense against microbial intruders. The bacteria are not killed by the clot. What actually kills the bacteria is not known at this point, although the phenoloxidase cascade does not seem to be of major importance since bacteria died in the absence of phenoloxidase. We identified and characterized a new clot protein which we named gp150 (Eig71Ee). Eig71Ee is an ecdysone-regulated mucin-like protein that is expressed in salivary glands, the perithophic membrane of the gut and in hemocytes, and can be labeled with the lectin peanut agglutinin (PNA). Eig71Ee was found to interact with another clot protein (Fondue), and the reaction was catalyzed by the enzyme transglutaminase. This is the first direct functional confirmation that transglutaminase acts in <i>Drosophila </i>coagulation. A protein fusion construct containing Fondue tagged with GFP was created. The fusion construct labeled the cuticle and the clot, and will be a valuable tool in future studies. Functional characterization of the previously identified clotting factor Hemolectin (Hml) revealed redundancy in the clotting mechanism. Loss of Hml had strong effects on larval hemolymph clotting ex vivo, but only minor effects, such as larges scabs, <i>in vivo</i> when larvae were wounded. An immunological role of Hml was demonstrated only after sensitizing the genetic background of Hml mutant flies confirming the difficulty of studying such processes in a living system. Hemolectin was previously considered to contain C-type lectin domains. We reassessed the domain structure and did not find any Ctype lectin domains; instead we found two discoidin domains which we propose are responsible for the protein’s lectin activity. We also showed that lepidopterans, such as<i> Galleria</i> <i>mellonella</i> and <i>Ephestia kuehniella</i>, use silk proteins to form clots. This finding suggests that the formation of a clot matrix evolved in insects by the co-option of proteins already participated in the formation of extracellular formations.</p>