Les lymphocytes T CD4+FoxP3+ régulateurs (Tregs) jouent un rôle majeur dans l'homéostasie du système immunitaire et la prévention des maladies auto-immunes en régulant les réponses immunitaires. Aussi bien chez la souris que chez l'homme, il est établi que des mutations de Foxp3 entraînent une déficience en Tregs qui induit un syndrome auto-immun conduisant à la mort. Bien que Foxp3 soit essentiel à la différenciation, la fonction et la stabilité des Tregs, ce n'est pas le seul facteur de transcription impliqué dans ces processus. De plus en plus d'études suggèrent notamment un rôle important de NF- B dans le développement et la fonction des Tregs mais celui-ci reste mal défini. Nous avons donc généré des souris ayant une délétion spécifique des sous-unités RelA ou RelB de NF- KB dans les Tregs. L'invalidation de RelA dans les Tregs conduit au développement d'un syndrome auto-immun sévère qui s'explique par un défaut fonctionnel et de stabilité des Tregs. L'invalidation de RelB dans les Tregs semble, quant à elle, augmenter leur fonction suppressive. Nous montrons ainsi un rôle majeur de NF- KB dans la fonction des Tregs ouvrant la voie à de nouveaux traitements qui stimuleraient ou inhiberaient les Tregs en modulant l'activation de NF- KB. / CD4+ Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) play a critical role in immune homeostasis and in the prevention of autoimmune diseases by regulating immune responses. In humans and mice, it is well established that Foxp3 deficiency conducts to the development of an autoimmune syndrome leading to early death. Although Foxp3 plays a critical role in differentiation, suppressive function and stability of Tregs, other transcription factors are also involved in different aspects of their biology. Even though increasing evidence shows an important role of NF-KB transcription factors in Treg cells development and function, their role is still poorly defined. To address this question we have generated conditional knock-out mice for RelA or RelB subunits of NF-KB only in Tregs. We show that the deficiency of RelA in Tregs leads to the development of a spontaneous severe autoimmune syndrome that could be explained by a defect in Tregs activation and stability. However, the deficiency of RelB seems to increase their suppressive function. Altogether, our data show a major role of NF-KB in Treg biology. This work could lead to new treatments that would stimulate or inhibit Tregs through the modulation of NF-KB activation.

Il existe de nombreuses similarités entre le développement du foetus et celui des cellules tumorales. En effet, dans les deux cas ils requièrent une division cellulaire intense, une invasion des tissues de l’hôte ainsi qu’une vascularisation soutenue. De plus, malgré le fait que le foetus et les cellules tumorales expriment à la fois des antigènes étrangers (les antigènes paternels pour le foetus et les antigènes du soi modifiés au niveau des cellules tumorales) ils ne sont pas rejetés par le système immunitaire. Parmi plusieurs populations cellulaires impliquées dans ce phénomène de non rejet ou de tolérance, les cellules T régulatrices (Tregs) jouent un rôle primordial dans les deux processus. En effet, notre laboratoire a démontré que l’émergence des cellules tumorales ainsi que l’implantation fœtale s’accompagnent d’une activation forte et rapide des Tregs. Cette observation prend tout son sens quand l’élimination de ces Tregs a conduit à un rejet immunitaire de la tumeur ou du foetus. Afin de valider ces observations, nous avons mis au point une étude transcriptomique comparative entre le microenvironnement tumoral et l’interface foeto-maternelle. Cela a révélé une forte similarité et une importante diminution des voies de signalisation immunologiques associées à la présentation antigénique et à l’activation des cellules T. De plus, des analyses non supervisées ont mis en évidence une coévolution des signatures immunitaires inhibées et cela dés les premiers jours suivant l’implantation des tumeurs ou du foetus. Par ailleurs, l’élimination des Tregs (qui a conduit un rejet de la tumeur ou du foetus) a permis de faire basculer les mêmes signatures immunitaires d’un état d’inhibition à un état d’activation. En définitive, nous pensons que les mécanismes déployés au cours de l’évolution pour protéger les foetus du rejet immunitaire sont détournés afin de favoriser le développement des cellules tumorales. / There are striking similarities between fetus and tumor development. They both require intense cell division, invasion of host tissues and sustained vascularization. Moreover, despite that fetus and tumor express foreign antigens - paternal allo-antigens for fetuses and modified auto-antigens for tumors, they are not rejected by the immune system. Among others, regulatory T cells (Tregs), which are key players in tolerance, appear to play a significant role in both processes. We showed that tumor emergence as well as embryo implantation elicit a strikingly similar brisk Treg response, which functional relevance is supported by the fact that and Treg depletion leads to fetus or tumor immune rejection. Comparison of fetal and tumor microenvironments through transcriptomics revealed strikingly similar and dramatic decrease in expression of multiple immune-related pathways, including antigen presentation and T cell response. Unsupervised analyses highlighted the co-evolution in time of downregulated immune signatures, from the very first days after tumor or embryo implantation. Treg depletion, which leads to fetus or tumor rejection, converted the very same down-modulated immune signatures to up-regulated ones. We propose that means selected during evolution to protect mammalian fetuses are hijacked to license tumor development.

Regulatorische T-Zellen (Tregs, CD4+CD25hi-Tregs) haben u. a. die Aufgabe, die Immunantwort sowie die Zytokinfreisetzung zu steuern, um die Immuntoleranz gegenüber körpereigenen Antigenen aufrecht zu erhalten. Es wurde beschrieben, dass depressive Patienten eine erniedrigte Konzentration von Tregs aufweisen. Da es Hinweise darauf gibt, dass Zytokine wie Interleukin (IL)-1IL-6 und Interferon (IFN)-eine Rolle in der Pathophysiologie der Depression spielen, und dass sich die Konzentrationen dieser Zytokine während antidepressiver Therapie ändern, untersuchten wir Veränderungen der Produktion von IL-1IL-6 und IFN- und Veränderungen der Konzentration von CD4+CD25hi-Tregs während antidepressiver Therapie. Wir gewannen dazu das Blut von 16 Patienten mit depressiver Störung in der ersten und sechsten Woche nach stationärer Aufnahme, indem wir die Plasmakonzentrationen von IL-1bestimmten. Ferner wurde die Produktion von IL-1, IL-6 und IFN-in einem Vollblut-Assay unter immunologischer Stimulation mit Lipopolysaccharid (LPS) oder Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV) in-vitro gemessen. Die Lymphozyten wurden differenziert und CD4+CD25hi-Tregs mittels Durchflusszytometrie bestimmt. Der psychopathologische Status wurde mit der Hamilton-Depressionsskala (HAMD-21) erfasst. Der HAMD-21-Score, die IL-1-Plasmakonzentrationen sowie die LPS-induzierte IL1-- und IL-6-Produktion waren nach sechs Wochen antidepressiver Behandlung signifikant gegenüber der Baseline erniedrigt. Dagegen stieg der Anteil der CD4+CD25hi-Tregs unter den Lymphozyten von 2,74% ± 0,88 (Mittelwert ± Standardabweichung) auf 3,54% ± 1,21 signifikant (p = 0,007) an. Es fand sich keine signifikante Änderung der NDV-induzierten IFN--Produktion. Der Anstieg der CD4+CD25hi-Tregs während antidepressiver Therapie könnte mit dem Abfall der Zytokinproduktion und der psychopathologischen Verbesserung der Patienten in einem kausalen Zusammenhang stehen.

Les tumeurs solides emploient diverses stratégies afin de se maintenir dans l’organisme et d’échapper à l’inhibition du système immunitaire. Un des mécanismes les plus puissants est la production de la cytokine Transforming Growth Factor Beta (TGF-bêta). Cependant, cette cytokine est sécrétée dans le micro-environnement tumoral sous une forme inactive, incapable de se lier à son récepteur et donc d’exercer ses fonctions hautement immunosuppressives. Ces travaux de thèse démontrent qu’une population de lymphocytes T (LT) CD4+ dite T régulateurs (Tregs), qui exprime le facteur de transcription Forkhead box P3 (Foxp3), est responsable de l’activation du TGF-bêta au sein de la tumeur. Nous avons montré que parmi les cellules du système immunitaire, les Tregs constituent la principale population exprimant l’intégrine avb8 (Itgb8), protéine responsable de l’activation du TGF-bêta. L’absence de l’Itgb8 spécifiquement à la surface des Tregs entraîne une forte diminution de la croissance tumorale. Par conséquent, l’activation de la signalisation du TGF-bêta est réduite dans les LT CD8+ qui infiltrent la tumeur, conduisant à une exacerbation de leurs fonctions cytotoxiques et donc à une élimination accrue des cellules tumorales. La relevance de ces données obtenues chez la souris a été confirmée chez l’Homme à la fois par des approches ex vivo sur des tumeurs fraîches ainsi que par des approches bio-informatiques et biostatistiques à partir d’étude de cohortes de patients. Nous proposons donc que les Tregs et les cellules tumorales travaillent de concert pour fournir une source bio-active de TGF-bêta capable de réprimer efficacement la réponse immunitaire anti-tumorale et donc de permettre à la tumeur d’échapper au système immunitaire / Solid tumors employ diverse strategies to be maintained in the organism and escape the suppression mediated by the immune system. One of the most powerful mechanisms they use is through the production of Transforming Growth Factor Beta (TGF-beta). However, this cytokine is secreted within the tumor microenvironment in its inactive form, unable to bind to its receptor and exert its highly immunosuppressive functions. The present thesis project demonstrates that a population of CD4+ T lymphocytes called regulatory T cells (Tregs), which express the transcription factor Forkhead box P3 (Foxp3), is responsible for TGF-beta activation in tumors. We show that among the cells of the immune system, Tregs constitute the main population expressing the integrin avb8 (Itgb8) which is responsible for TGF-beta activation. The absence of Itgb8 specifically on Tregs surface leads to strong decrease of tumor growth. As a result, TGF-beta signaling pathway is impaired in tumor infiltrating CD8+ T lymphocytes leading to exacerbation of their cytotoxic and efficient elimination of tumor cells. The relevance of these data obtained in mice was confirmed in the human pathology by ex vivo approaches using fresh tumors as well as by bioinformatics and biostatistics approaches from studies on patient cohorts. We propose that Tregs and tumor cells cooperate to provide a bioactive source of TGF-beta which is able to efficiently repress the anti-tumor response and thus allowing tumors to escape the immune system

Here I describe a new function of Focal Adhesion Kinase (FAK) in driving anti-tumour immune evasion. The kinase activity of FAK in squamous cancer cells drives the recruitment of regulatory T-cells (Tregs) by transcriptionally regulating chemokine/cytokine and ligand-receptor networks, including the transcription of CCL5 and TGFβ, which are required for enhanced Treg recruitment. In turn, these changes inhibit antigen-primed cytotoxic CD8+ T-cell activity in the tumour microenvironment, permitting survival and growth of FAK-expressing tumours. I show that immune evasion requires FAK’s catalytic activity, and a small molecule FAK kinase inhibitor, VS-4718, which is currently in clinical development, drives depletion of Tregs and permits CD8+ T-cell-mediated tumour clearance. It is therefore likely that FAK inhibitors may trigger immune-mediated tumour regression, providing previously unrecognized therapeutic benefit.

A balanced immune response is required to mediate clearance of a virus infection without immune-mediated disease. CD4 and CD8 T cells are capable of both exerting antiviral effector functions and regulating the immune response. The regulatory T cell (Treg) subset of CD4 T cells helps to modulate immune activation and inflammation. During respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection in mice, conventional CD4 T-cell-mediated cytokine production has been shown to contribute to immune-mediated pathology. I demonstrate that Tregs are critical to control immunopathology during RSV infection. This was demonstrated through diphtheria toxin (DT)-mediated Treg elimination in a mouse strain expressing the DT receptor (DTR) under the control of the Foxp3 promoter. However, these mice were unable to maintain extended Treg depletion limiting the effectiveness of this model. In addition, DT-treated wild-type (WT) mice were found to be a necessary control for adverse DT-induced disease. In humans, I have shown that activated Tregs are reduced in the peripheral blood of RSV-infected infants compared to controls. RSV-infected infants also exhibited an increased proinflammatory cytokine response in nasal aspirates. However, the alarmin cytokine IL-33, which has been shown to mediate Treg homeostasis, was the only cytokine that exhibited reduced protein levels in RSV-infected infants compared to controls. Thus, severe RSV infection in infants may be due to lack of proper Treg-mediated immune regulation. Similar to RSV, regulation of the T cell response during chronic viral infection with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) is vital to prevent immune-mediated pathology. During LCMV and human chronic viral infections, CD4 and CD8 T cells exhibit T cell exhaustion where they lose the ability to exert effector functions. However, a functional CD4 and CD8 T cell response is required for viral clearance. During human chronic viral infection, an association between increased CD4 and CD8 T cell function and enhanced viral control has been identified that can be influenced by genetic factors. I aimed to identify the contribution of the host genetic factors that contribute to enhanced CD8 T cell function and viral control using the LCMV model. I found that increasing the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) diversity resulted in enhanced viral control in both a C57BL and BALB genetic background. Thus, induction of a broader T cell response was associated with enhanced viral control. However, mice expressing a heterozygous MHC on the C57BL background also exhibited mortality following chronic viral infection. Both CD4 and CD8 T cells were shown to contribute to this mortality and exhibited reduced T cell exhaustion during LCMV infection in these mice. Heterozygous MHC expression on the C57BL mouse background was also associated with an increased T helper (Th)-1 skewed CD4 T cell response compared to mice on the BALB background. Furthermore, CD4 T-cell-mediated IFN-γ production contributed to both CD8 T cell effector activity and mortality during chronic LCMV infection. Thus, both T cell epitope diversity and host genetics contribute to LCMV-induced mortality. Collectively, my data highlight both the need for effective immune-meditated viral control and regulation of T-cell-mediated pathology during both acute and chronic viral infections.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disorder of the central nervous system (CNS). In the current thesis, we have preformed an immunological investigation of patients with MS and developed an immunosuppressive cell therapy that could be beneficial for these patients. MS has been considered to be driven by T helper type1 (Th1) lymphocytes but new data indicate the involvement of Th17 responses. T cells from patients with MS that were evaluated for immunological status secreted both interferon-γ and interleukin-17 upon stimulation. However, T cells from patients with MS in remission, in contrast to relapse, had poor proliferative capacity suggesting that they are controlled and kept in anergy. T regulatory cells (Tregs) are important to maintain self-tolerance and the role of CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ Tregs in autoimmunity has been extensively investigated. We analyzed Tregs from patients with MS in relapse and remission by multicolor flow cytometry for the expression of CD3, CD4, IL2R (CD25), FoxP3 and the IL7R (CD127). Patients in relapse exhibited higher levels of FoxP3-positive Tregs lacking CD25 compared to healthy controls, indicating that Tregs might attempt to restrain immune activity during relapse. In the murine experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of MS, therapy with suppressive cells such as Tregs or mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) has proven beneficial. However, systemic administration of such cells may immunologically compromise the recipient and promote infections due to general immunosuppression. We hypothesized that suppressive cells can be equipped with a CNS-targeting receptor and be delivered intra-nasally to avoid systemic exposure. CD4+ T cells were modified with a lentiviral vector system to express a myelin oligodendrocyte (MOG)-targeting receptor in trans with the FoxP3 gene that drives Treg differentiation. Genetically engineered Tregs demonstrated suppressive capacity in vitro and localized to the brain and suppressed ongoing encephalomyelitis in vivo. Cured mice were rechallenged with an EAE-inducing inoculum but remained healthy. MSCs are a heterogeneous population of stromal cells residing in most connective tissues and have the capacity to suppress effector cells of the immune system. MSCs were engineered to express MOG-targeting receptors using lentiviral vectors. Genetically engineered MSCs retained their suppressive capacity in vitro and successfully targeted the brain upon intranasal delivery. Engineered MSCs cured mice from disease symptoms and these mice were resistant to further EAE challenge. Encephalitic T cells isolated from cured mice displayed an anergic profile while peripheral T cells were still responsive to stimuli. In conclusion, MS patients have peripheral CNS-reactive T cells of both Th1 and Th17 type that, while in remission, are kept in anergy. Also, MS patients in relapse exhibit increased levels of CD25 negative Tregs indicating an attempt to restrain immune activity. Finally, immunosuppressive cells can be genetically engineered to target CNS and efficiently suppress encephalomyelitis in an active EAE model upon intranasal delivery.

The mammalian immune system is equipped to both eliminate pathogenic microorganisms and tumors, while remaining in homeostasis with commensal species at mucosal surfaces and tolerant towards self. Suppressor regulatory T cells (Tregs) are a major sentinel of this immunological tolerance. Induced Tregs (iTregs) arise in the periphery following the integration of cues from the metabolites, cytokines, etc. which make up its milieu. Dysregulation of iTreg development, function or homing underlies the etiology of many autoimmune diseases and immunopathologies. The amelioration or prevention of multiple murine disease models by boosting Treg cell numbers foreshadows clinical efficacy of iTreg therapy, but an incomplete understanding of Treg development has thus far prevented successful translation. Therefore, we considered the basic biology of T cell fate decision making from two unique, but integrated angles. First, we show that the stimulation of PPARγ in human T cells upregulates RDH10, a molecule which catalyzes the rate limiting step in the oxidation of retinol to transcriptionally active all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA), a positive regulator of iTreg development. This functionally intact pathway endows T cells the ability to autonomously sense and respond to retinoid signals present during Treg development and at tissue sites. Next, we asked questions about how T cells sense nutrient and oxygen availability as they differentiate. Tregs lacking the serine/threonine kinase PINK1 have limited activation-induced phosphorylation of Akt and oxidative phosphorylation rates, and reduced suppressor function. Notably, the uncoupling of iTreg function from normal FoxP3 expression reinforces the recent hypothesis that the PI3K/Akt/mTORC1 axis and metabolic checkpoints are decisive players in the acquisition of suppressor activity. Ultimately, the studies described herein converge on Akt and metabolism, and contribute to our understanding of how T cells integrate diverse signals present during fate determinism, provoking future Treg based therapeutics.

Orientador: Ana Carla Pereira [UNESP[ Latini / Resumo: A hanseníase é causada pelo Mycobacterium leprae, que infecta macrófagos e células de Schwann, gerando lesões cutâneas e comprometendo nervos periféricos. A doença se apresenta sob diferentes formas clínicas, fortemente determinadas pela resposta imune do hospedeiro, podendo ser classificada como multibacilar (MB) e paucibacilar (PB). Trata-se de uma doença complexa e estudos voltados para a relação genótipo/fenótipo têm evidenciado a participação do componente genético humano nos desfechos da doença. O gene IL2RA está localizado na região cromossômica 10p15, próximo à região 10p13 que foi previamente associada à forma PB da doença, sendo um candidato posicional e funcional para estudos de associação genética com a forma clínica da hanseníase. Este receptor, também denominado CD25, tem papel fundamental na atividade imunorregulatória exercida pelas células Tregs. O TGF-β1 é uma das principais citocinas efetoras da atividade imunorreugulatória das Tregs e está presente em maior quantidade na forma MB. O objetivo do presente trabalho é investigar a associação dos genes IL2RA e TGFB1com as formas clínicas da hanseníase. Para tanto, conduzimos um estudo de associação baseado em duas amostras caso-controles incluindo 885 casos de hanseníase: 406 casos de Rondonópolis-MT como população primária; 479 casos provenientes do Estado de São Paulo como população de replicação. Os dados de frequências nos grupos de pacientes MB e PB foram comparados por modelo de regressão logística univar... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Leprosy is an infectious chronic disease compromising skin and peripheral nerves. There is a spectrum encompassing the clinical forms of leprosy, directed by host immune response. Leprosy has been classified as multibacillary (MB) and paucibacillary (PB), in accord to number of lesions and bacillary burden. Here we have conducted a genetic association study to clinical forms of leprosy based on two case-control samples from Brazil. We have investigated the association of the IL2RA and TGFB1 genes with clinical forms of leprosy. These genes codify important molecules to immunosuppressive activity of the Treg cells, and present differential expressions in accord to the clinical forms of leprosy. A total of 885 leprosy cases were included in the study: 406 cases from Rondonópolis municipality as start population, and 479 cases from the State of São Paulo as a replication population. The AA genotype of the rs2386841 polymorphism in the IL2RA gene was associated to PB form in the start population (OR: 4.29; p-value = 0.0043), but this was not confirmed for the replication population. The C allele of the rs1800470 marker at the TGFB1 gene was associated to MB form in the start population (OR: 2.36; p-value = 0.0238). This association was replicated for the replication population (OR: 2.10; p-value = 0.0300). In a combined analysis joining both populations the association of the rs1800470 was confirmed (OR: 1.81; p-value = 0.0475). We have demonstrated, for the first time, an associ... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

ABSTRACT Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are CD4+ T lymphocytes that express the gene FOXP3 and suppress other cellular immune responses. Their role in HIV pathogenesis is uncertain. Regulatory T cell (Treg) levels were analysed in peripheral blood of HIV infected patients and controls in South Africa. Immunophenotypic analysis revealed significantly elevated levels of FOXP3 positive Tregs in HIV infected patients (median 6.8%) compared with controls (median 3.7%). Treg levels were inversely correlated with CD4+ T cell count. FOXP3 mRNA expression was dependent on choice of reference gene (GAPDH or 18sRNA) and did not correlate with FOXP3 protein expression analysed flow cytometrically. These findings illustrate that Tregs are elevated in the peripheral blood of patients with late stage HIV disease and suggest a role for Tregs in the clinical immune suppression seen in these patients. Tregs may prove to be useful therapeutic targets for intervention or as a prognostic monitoring tool.