Several hydraulic loadings impose earthen levees to time-dependent variably saturated seepage conditions. The main objective of this study is to improve the analysis of levees under transient seepage with the use of unsaturated soil mechanics. An extensive set of laboratory testing, field monitoring and numerical modeling are performed to analyze a silty sand setback levee located near Seattle, WA. In-situ data obtained from field monitoring are used to monitor suction and effective stress within the levee’s embankment and foundation over the past two years. Soil samples taken from the site are used to perform index, water retention, and unsaturated multi-stage triaxial tests in the laboratory. A finite element model of transient seepage under saturated-unsaturated conditions is then developed and calibrated to reasonably match the field data. The results highlight the need to consider unsaturated soil mechanics along with climatic variables and soil-atmosphere interaction when analyzing levees under transient seepage conditions.

[pt] Este trabalho estuda um modelo acoplado de deformação e fluxo, baseado na teoria de Biot, para solos saturados e não saturados, porém levando-se em consideração a não linearidade física do solo. Na condição não saturada o fluxo do fluido pode ser considerado bifásico ou monofásico. No caso de fluxo bifásico o modelo calcula simultaneamente a pressão de água e do ar, possibilitando assim, a avaliação dos valores da sucção. O grau de saturação é então determinado a partir dos valores obtidos de sucção. Uma vez conhecido o grau de saturação é possível avaliar a permeabilidade relativa do solo para o fluxo de água e ar, tornando o problema não linear em relação à permeabilidade. No problema de fluxo monofásico a pressão de ar é mantida constante, assumindo-se o valor da pressão atmosférica. O comportamento não linear da relação tensão-deformação em solos não saturados é avaliado pelo modelo básico de Barcelona (BBM), baseado na teoria da plasticidade e conceitos de comportamento de solos no estado crítico. Este modelo pode ser compreendido como uma generalização do modelo Cam Clay freqüentemente usado para representação do comportamento mecânico de solos saturados. A influência da sucção na resistência ao cisalhamento de solos não saturados é verificada por meio de algumas aplicações numéricas. Neste trabalho, a não linearidade física de solos secos e saturados também é simulada através do modelo elastoplástico de Lade & Kim. / [en] This dissertation studies a coupled flow and deformation model for saturated and non-saturated soils, based on Biot`s theory but taking into account the nonlinear material behavior of soil. In the non-saturated condition the fluid flow can be considered either as a two-phase or an one-phase problem. In the two-phase case, the model calculates the pressure of air and water simultaneously, thus permitting the evaluation of the pore suction values and the degree of saturation. Once known, the degree of saturation is used for the determination of the relative permeability of the soil considering the flow of water and air, solving a problem that is nonlinear with respect to permeability. In the one-phase flow, the pressure of air is kept constant and equal to the atmospheric pressure. The stress-strain nonlinear behavior of non-saturated soils is modeled through the basic Barcelona model (BBM model) based on plasticity theory and concepts from the critical state behavior of soils. This model may be understood as an extension of the modified Cam Clay model frequently used for representation of the mechanical behavior of saturated soils. The suction influence on the shear resistance of non-saturated soils is examined through some numerical applications. In this work, the material nonlinearity of dry or saturated soils is also simulated through the Lade & Kim elastoplastic model.

One of the most important steps in the numerical simulation of a hydrogeological system is the precise definition of initial and boundary conditions. The better these are characterized, the more efficient the calculation and the more accurate are the simulation result. In case of simulating processes in the unsaturated soil zone, the water retention curve, the relationship between volumetric water content and matric potential, is of great importance. However, the retention parameters determined locally by different standard methods often do not represent the whole soil system under consideration due to heterogeneities in the soil body caused by variability or different compaction of the soil. Resulting over- or underestimation of the parameters is leading to a worse performance of simulations of the water balance including to a higher calibration effort. Therefore, it is more favorable to identify these soil parameters by a method representing the whole soil system to avoid uncertainties. For this reason, a dike experiment was performed to investigate how soil parameters determined locally and globally can represent the properties of the whole soil system. When comparing the simulation results of the numerical models, a better agreement of measured and simulated water contents as well as a lower effort for calibration is observed by using the soil parameters determined globally.

[pt] Para o conhecimento do estado de tensão natural do solo, expresso pelo coeficiente de empuxo no repouso (k0), emprega-se a realização de ensaios de laboratório em amostras indeformadas. A importância da determinação desse parâmetro para solos coluvionares diz respeito à aplicação em obras de engenharia que envolvam empuxo de terra e fundações. Existem correlações na literatura para a determinação de k0 que provém de pesquisas desenvolvidas considerando solos sedimentares, tipicamente de regiões temperadas ou frias. Ao lidar com solos coluvionares e residuais, típicos de regiões tropicais, não é condizente utilizar dessas correlações, visto que o k0 é afetado por vários fatores, tais como a sucção, grau de intemperismo, processo de laterização, entre outros que também afetam solos sedimentares saturados. Esse estudo analisa as amostras de solo coluvionar provenientes do talude da Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio). Para determinar o coeficiente de empuxo no repouso do solo coluvionar na condição não saturada, é utilizado um equipamento de parede flexível, com sistema de controle de sucção. Para avaliar a influência da sucção no valor do coeficiente de empuxo no repouso, cada amostra foi ensaiada sob diferentes teores de umidade: mais úmida, com sucção de 10 kPa; intermediária com sucção de 40 kPa; e mais seca, com 100 kPa. Os valores de k0 obtidos nos ensaios variaram de 0,19 a 0,24. O coeficiente de empuxo no repouso do solo coluvionar na condição saturada (sucção nula) também foi determinado usando um equipamento triaxial servo-controlado tipo Bishop-Wesley. O valor de k0 obtido para o solo coluvionar na condição saturada foi de 0,36. Os resultados obtidos seguiram, em parte, a tendência esperada. / [en] For the knowledge of the natural stress state of the soil, expressed by the coefficient of earth pressure at rest (k0), a laboratory test is used in undisturbed samples. The importance of the determination of this parameter for colluvium soils relates to the application in engineering works that involve buoyancy of earth and foundations. There are correlations in the literature for determination k0 that comes from researches developed considering sedimentary soils, typically from temperate or cold regions. In dealing with residual and colluvium soils, typical of tropical regions, it is not appropriate to use these correlations, since k0 is affected by several factors, such as degree of weathering, laterization processes and suction, among others that also affect saturated sedimentary soils. This research analyzes samples of a colluvium soil from the Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio). For the determination of the coefficient of earth pressure at rest of the unsaturated colluvium soil, a flexible wall equipment, with a system of suction control was used. In order to evaluate the influence of suction on the value of the coeficiente of erath pressure at rest, each sample was tested under different moisture contents: wetter, with suction of 10 kPa; intermediate with suction of 40 kPa; and drier with 100 kPa. The k0 values obtained in the tests ranged from 0,19 to 0,24. The coefficient of earth pressure at saturated colluvium (null suction) was also determined using Bishop and Wesley type, servo-controlled triaxial equipment. The value of k0 obtained for the colluvium soil in the saturated condition was equal to 0.36. The results in both trials followed, in part, the expected trend.

Ce travail de recherche se situe dans le cadre du développement de la méthode des éléments de frontière (BEM) pour les milieux poreux multiphasiques. À l'heure actuelle, l'application de la BEM aux pr oblèmes des milieux poreux non-saturés est encore limitée, car l'expression analytique exacte de la solution fondamentale n'a pas été obtenue, ni dans le domaine transformé ni dans le domaine réel. Ceci provient de la complexité du système d'équations régissant le comportement des milieux poreux non-saturés. Les développements de la BEM pour les sols non-saturés effectués au cours de cette thèse sont basés sur les modèles thermo-hydro-mécanique (THHM) et hydro-mécanique (HHM) présentés dans la première partie de ce mémoire. Ces modèles phénoménologiques basés sur la théorie de la poromécanique et les acquis expérimentaux sont obtenus dans le cadre du modèle mathématique présenté par Gatmiri (1997) et Gatmiri et al. (1998). Après avoir présenté les modèles THHM et HHM, on établit pour la première fois les équations intégrales de frontière et les solutions fondamentales associées pour un milieu poreux non-saturé sous chargement quasi-statique pour les deux cas isotherme (2D dans le domaine de Laplace) et non-isotherme (2D et 3D dans les domaines de Laplace et temporel). Aussi, les équations intégrales de frontière ainsi que les solutions fondamentales 2D et 3D (dans le domaine de Laplace) pour le modèle dynamique couplé des sols non-saturés sont obtenues. Ensuite, les formulations d'éléments de frontière (BEM) basées sur la méthode quadrature de convolution (MQC) concernant les milieux poreux saturé et non-saturé sous chargement quasi-statique isotherme et dynamique sont implémentées dans le code de calcul « HYBRID ». Ayant intégrées les formulations de BEM pour les problèmes de propagation d'ondes ainsi que pour les problèmes de consolidation dans les milieux poreux saturés et non-saturés, il semble que nous ayons fourni à l'heure actuelle le premier code de calcul aux éléments de frontière (BEM) qui modélise les différents problèmes dans les sols secs, saturés et non-saturés. Une fois le code vérifié et validé, des études paramétriques portant sur des effets de site sismiques sont effectuées. Le but recherché est d'aboutir à un critère simple, directement exploitable par les ingénieurs, combinant les caractéristiques géométriques et les caractéristiques du sol, permettant de prédire l'amplification du spectre de réponse en accélération dans des vallées sédimentaires aussi bien que vides / The purpose of this dissertation is to develop a boundary element method (BEM) for multiphase porous media. Nowadays, the application of the BEM for solving problems of unsaturated porous media is still limited, because no fundamental solution exists in the published literature, neither in the frequency nor time domain. This fact rises from the complexity of the coupled partial differential equations governing the behaviour of such media. The developments of the BEM for the unsaturated soils carried out during this thesis are based on the thermo-hydro-mechanical (THHM) and hydro-mechanical (HHM) models presented in the first part of this dissertation. These phenomenological models are presented based on the experimental observations and with respect to the poromechanics theory within the framework of the suction-based mathematical model presented by Gatmiri (1997) and Gatmiri et al. (1998). After having presented the THHM and HHM models, for the first time, one establishes the boundary integral equations (BIE) and the associated fundamental solutions for the unsaturated porous media subjected to quasi-static loading for both isothermal (2D in the Laplace transform domain) and non-isothermal (2D and 3D in Laplace transform and time domains) cases. Also, the boundary integral equations as well as the fundamental solutions (2D and 3D in the Laplace transform domain) are obtained for the fully coupled dynamic model of unsaturated soils.In the next step, the boundary element formulations (BEM) based on the convolution quadrature method (CQM) regarding the saturated and unsaturated porous media subjected to isothermal quasi-static and dynamic loadings are implemented via the computer code HYBRID. Having integrated the BEM formulations for the wave propagation, as well as the consolidation problems in the saturated and unsaturated porous media, it seems that now the first boundary element code is obtained that can model the various problems in dry, saturated and unsaturated soils. Once the code is verified and validated, parametric studies on seismic site effects are carried out. The aim is to achieve a simple criterion directly usable by engineers, combining the topographical and geological characteristics of the soil, to predict the amplification of acceleration response spectra in sedimentary as well as hollow valleys

Correct modelling of embankment breach formation is essential for an accurate assessment of the associated flood risk. Modelling breach formation due to overflow requires a thorough understanding of the geotechnical processes in unsaturated soils as well as erosion processes under supercritical flow conditions. This thesis describes 1D slope stability analysis performed for unsaturated soils whose moisture content changes with time. The analysis performed shows that sediment-laden gravity flows play an important role in the erosion behaviour of embankments. The thesis also describes a practical, fast breach model based on a simplified description of the physical processes that can be used in modelling and decision support frameworks for flooding. To predict the breach hydrograph, the rapid model distinguishes between breach formation due to headcut erosion and surface erosion in the case of failure due to overflow. The model also predicts the breach hydrograph in the case of failure due to piping. The assumptions with respect to breach flow modelling are reviewed, and result in a new set of breadth-integrated Navier-Stokes equations, that account for wall shear stresses and a variable breadth geometry. The vertical 2D flow field described by the equations can be used to calculate accurately the stresses on the embankment during the early stages of breach formation. Pressure-correction methods are given for solving the 2D Navier-Stokes equations for a variable breadth, and good agreement is found when validating the flow model against analytical solutions.

Devido à importância do monitoramento da composição iônica da solução do solo, no que diz respeito ao meio ambiente e ao manejo da fertirrigação, associada às limitações práticas dos métodos tradicionais de sua determinação é crescente a procura por um método confiável que possibilite o monitoramento desta composição em tempo real e em curtos intervalos de tempo. Neste sentido a TDR tem sido uma alternativa viável. O presente trabalho objetivou, pelo uso da TDR, avaliar o desempenho de sete modelos na determinação da CEw; relacioná-los com a concentração dos íons potássio nitrato e cloreto avaliando os modelos em determinar a concentração dos íons; e por fim monitorar e determinar a concentração destes íons na água lixiviada em coluna de solo não saturado. O trabalho foi divido em dois experimentos, no primeiro os modelos foram calibrados em colunas de solo sendo formado por 24 tratamentos composto por 4 faixas de umidade volumétrica e 6 concentrações da solução de KCl. Para cada coluna de solo era realizada uma leitura com a TDR ( e CEa) e a CEw na solução do solo era determinada por condutivímetro de mesa, nesta solução foram determinadas as concentrações de potássio e cloreto. No segundo experimento o mesmo procedimento foi realizado, entretanto, foi aplicado KNO3 e determinados potássio e nitrato. Desta forma, foi possível calibrar os modelos para a estimativa da CEw, e para determinação das concentrações dos íons potássio, nitrato e cloreto. Os modelos foram avaliados pelos coeficientes de determinação (R²) e exatidão (d), pela estimativa do erro padrão (EEP) e, ainda, foram classificados de acordo com o índice c, produto dos dois coeficientes citados. Os resultados mostram que os modelos de Rhoads et al. (1976) e Vogeler et al. (1996) se ajustam melhor para solos com características texturais argilosas sendo classificados como Ótimos métodos para a determinação da CEw, tanto pela aplicação de KCl como pela aplicação de KNO3 via água de irrigação. Na estimativa da CEw no solo arenoso os modelos de Munõz-Carpena et al. (2005), Mualen e Friedman (1991), Vogeler et al. (1996) e Rhoads et al. (1976) apresentam melhores ajustes na determinação da CEw, sendo classificados com Muito bom. Na determinação do potássio pelos modelos avaliados o melhor ajuste se dá pela associação da relação K-CEw do tipo potência aplicada para solos argilosos e linear para solos arenosos, apresentando classificação de: Ótimo e Muito bom, respectivamente. Para o cloreto e o nitrato o melhor ajuste se dá pela relação de CEw-Cl e CEw-NO do tipo linear, apresentando classificação de Muito Bom e Ótimo respectivamente. A TDR é uma técnica confiável no monitoramento da concentração dos íons potássio e cloreto lixiviados no perfil do solo. / There is a growing demand for a reliable method applied to monitoring ionic composition of soil solution in real-time and short time intervals, due the importance to environmental sustainability and fertigation management and limitations of traditional methods for determination. Time domain reflectometry (TDR) is often considered a viable alternative to traditional methods. Consequently, this research looks for using TDR evaluate the performance of seven mathematical models for determining electrical conductivity (CEw) by comparing simulated and measured concentrations of potassium, nitrate and chloride, and to monitor and determine the concentration of these ions in water leached from unsaturated soil columns. The research was carried out under two experiments conditions. In the first experiment the models were calibrated with input data from 24 soil columns consisting of four soils with six different KCl concentrations. For each soil column CEw was determined by both TDR ( and CEa readings) and the CEw of soil solution was determined by direct measurements of potassium and chloride concentrations. In the second experiment the procedure was the same, but with KCl being replaced with KNO3. This was possible to calibrate the models to estimate the CEw, and to determine potassium, nitrate and chloride ions concentrations. The models were ranked using the c-index, the coefficient of determination (R²) and estimated standard error (ESE). The results showed were Rhoads et al. (1976) and Vogel et al. (1996) classified as \"Great\" for the CEw determination associated with the application of both KCl and KNO3 to irrigation water in clay soils. For estimating CEw in sandy soils, the models Muñoz-Carpena et al. (2005), Mualen and Friedman (1991), Vogel et al. (1996) and Rhoads et al. (1976) were classified as \"Very Good.\" The relationship between CEw and potassium concentration was best represented by a power function in clay soils, and a linear function in sandy soils, with index of \"Great\" and \"Very Good\", respectively. For chloride and nitrate, the best fits were obtained by representing the CEw-Cl and CEw-NO3 relationships with linear functions, which were classified as Very Good and Good, respectively. TDR proved to be a reliable technique for monitoring the concentration of potassium and chloride ions leached in soil profiles.

Em muitos países e principalmente no Brasil, compostos oxigenados tais como etanol e metil terta-butil-éter (MTBE) têm sido adicionados à gasolina em cerca de 26% do seu volume para aumentar a octanagem do motor e diminuir a emissão de monóxido de carbono e os níveis de ozônio na atmosfera. O derramamento de tais gasolinas, referidas como gasolina oxigenada tem um efeito cosolvente, provocando um aumento da concentração dos hidrocarbonetos na água subterrânea. A taxa de dissolução em água da gasolina oxigenada, que é dependente das propriedades químicas dos compostos orgânicos, determinam o grau e a severidade de contaminação da água subterrânea nas vizinhanças do derramamento. O objetivo do trabalho foi analisar e quantificar o potencial de contaminação da água subterrânea e de solos arenosos residuais dos arenitos da Formação Botucatu por derramamento de gasolina oxigenada. As análises realizadas buscam fornecer dados para a modelagem numérica em casos envolvendo derramamento de gasolina. Ensaios de equilíbrio em lote e de dissolução em colunas foram realizados objetivando a determinação da concentração aquosa de hidrocarbonetos da gasolina em equilíbrio de fases e a avaliação do tempo estimado para total dissolução em água dos hidrocarbonetos da gasolina pura. Ambos os ensaios analisaram também o efeito cosolvente do etanol na mistura. Verificou-se a validade da lei de Raoult e do modelo log-linear na determinação da concentração aquosa da gasolina pura e oxigenada. Em colunas de solos não saturados avaliou-se a difusão na fase vapor dos compostos orgânicos da gasolina em função do tempo. Finalizando as análises, fez-se uma simulação numérica do transporte da gasolina em zonas não saturadas fazendo-se uso do programa R-UNSAT. / In many countries and mainly in Brazil oxygenated compounds such as ethanol and MTBE have been added to gasoline up to 26% to increase the octane level and to reduce carbon monoxide and ozone levels in the air. The spill of such gasolines, referred as oxygenated gasoline has a potential cosolvent effect, resulting in an increased groundwater concentration of hydrocarbons. The rate of oxygenated gasoline dissolution, which is dependent of the chemical properties of the compounds, determines the degree and severity of groundwater contamination in the vicinity of the spill. The goal of this research was to analyze and to quantify the potential of contamination of the groundwater and of the residual sandy soils from Botucatu sandstone due to the spill of oxigenated gasoline. The performed analysis supply data to the numerical model in case of gasoline spills. Laboratory batch and column leaching tests were carried out in order to determine the equilibrium aqueous concentration of the hydrocarbons compounds of gasoline and to evaluate the time scale for aqueous dissolution of the hydrocarbons compounds. Both tests have analyzed the cosolvent effect of ethanol in the mixture. It was verified the validity of the Raoult's law and the log-linear cosolvency model to estimate the solubility of the hydrocarbons compounds from unamended gasoline and from oxygenated gasoline. Column tests with unsaturated undisturbed soil samples were carried out to investigate the vapor-phase diffusion of aromatic hydrocarbons compounds with time. Finally the transport of gasoline in unsaturated zones was simulated with the R-UNSAT model.

L'effet de la végétation locale, composée de Castanea sativa cultivé, sur la stabilité des pentes a été étudié sur un site d'essai au Mont Faito (Campanie, Italie). En Campanie, les sols pyroclastiques peu profonds sont sensibles aux glissements de terrain provoqués par les précipitations. Des périodes de pluies prolongées suivies de précipitations extrêmes à court terme déclenchent des glissements de terrain rapides et destructeurs au niveau des coupes routières et des escarpements pyroclastiques sur les falaises rocheuses dans les régions autour du volcan Vésuve.Des échantillons de sol pyroclastiques non perturbés contenant des racines de C. sativa matures ont été utilisés pour la caractérisation hydraulique par le biais d'un ensemble d'expériences en laboratoire. La perméabilité saturée, la réponse à l’évaporation et l’imbibition, la teneur en eau pour les fortes valeurs de succion et la biomasse sèche des racines ont été déterminées.La présence de racines a augmenté la perméabilité d'un ordre de grandeur dans les sols les plus superficiels (10-7 à 10-6 m s-1) et diminué la valeur d'entrée d'air des courbes de rétention (6 à 4 kPa). La variabilité de la perméabilité entre les couches de sol a été identifiée comme conditionnant l'écoulement de l'eau souterraine par rapport à la vitesse du mouvement du front de mouillage et à la génération de pressions positives de l'eau interstitielle dans le profil. L'étalonnage du modèle hystérétique pour caractériser les sols pyroclastiques naturels a fourni une méthode plus approximative de modélisation des réponses hydrauliques. Une bonne concordance entre le modèle et les observations a été obtenue.L’étude sur le terrain a permis de montrer que la distribution des racines de C. sativa est associée au régime des eaux souterraines. Les distributions spatiales et verticales de la densité et des traits des racines ont été quantifiées pour les racines de C. sativa prélevées dans des forages réalisés au Mont Faito. La succion minimale, la teneur minimale en eau et la pente minimale (indiquant un débit d'eau descendant) ont été surveillées tout au long de l'année et confrontées avec la distribution des racines et à la distribution spatiale des arbres. Une densité racinaire croissante était associée à des valeurs de succion plus faibles et à des gradients d'infiltration plus élevés, ce qui peut avoir une influence négative sur la stabilité de la pente.La modélisation du renforcement mécanique du sol par les racines des arbres a permis de comprendre l'importance des composantes hydrauliques et mécaniques sur la stabilité d'une pente. Les racines augmentent la résistance au cisaillement (jusqu'à 25,8 kPa) grâce à un renforcement mécanique et donc le facteur de sécurité de la pente augmente. L'examen du renforcement dû aux racines dans l'estimation du facteur de sécurité des surfaces de rupture potentielles a montré que la surface de rupture la plus faible a été trouvée à 2,2 m, où le renforcement dû aux racines était de 1,3 kPa, au lieu de 0,9 m sans le renforcement de 13,8 kPa. La surface de rupture la plus faible correspond aux surfaces de rupture observées lors de glissements de terrain antérieurs. Le site d'essai ne présentait pas les caractéristiques d'une zone de déclenchement d'un glissement de terrain. L'angle de pente des zones de déclenchement des glissements de terrain (35° à 45°) peut dépasser l'angle de frottement du sol (36,5° à 38,5°) et l'effet hydraulique ne serait pas suffisant pour garantir la stabilité de la pente pendant la saison humide (0 à 10 kPa). On estime que le renforcement dû aux racines peut maintenir les pentes jusqu'à un angle de 42°.On a donc constaté que la présence de racines d'arbres affectait la stabilité hydraulique et mécanique des couvertures de sol pyroclastiques. Ces conclusions peuvent être étendues aux autres zones de plantations de C. sativa. L'effet hydraulique de la végétation a été largement compensé par le renforcement mécanique dû aux racines / The effect of the local vegetation, composed of cultivated Castanea sativa, on slope stability was investigated on a test site in Mount Faito (Campania, Southern Italy). In Campania, shallow pyroclastic soil covers are susceptible to landslides triggered by rainfall. Prolonged rainfall periods followed by extreme short-term rainfall events trigger fast moving and highly destructive landslides in road cuts and pyroclastic scarps on rocky cliffs in the areas surrounding the Vesuvius volcano.Undisturbed pyroclastic soil samples containing roots of mature C. sativa were used for hydraulic characterization through an extensive set of laboratory experiments. Saturated permeability, evaporation and imbibition response, water content for high suction ranges, and the root dry biomass were determined.The presence of roots increased the hydraulic permeability by one order of magnitude in the most surficial soil (10-7 to 10-6 m s-1) and decreased the air-entry value of the water retention curves (6 to 4 kPa). The variability of soil permeability among soil layers was identified as conditioning of the groundwater flow with regard to the speed of the wetting front movement and generation of positive pore-water pressures within the soil profile. The calibration of hysteretic model to characterize natural pyroclastic soil provided a more approximate manner of modelling in situ hydraulic responses. A good agreement between the model and the field observations was obtained.Field monitoring was performed with the intent of showing that the distribution of roots of C. sativa is associated to the groundwater regime. The spatial and vertical distribution of root density and traits were quantified for C. sativa roots collected from several boreholes performed in Mount Faito. Minimum suction, minimum water content and minimum gradient (indicative of downward water flow), were monitored throughout the year and related to root distribution and spatial distribution of trees. An increasing root density was found to be associated to lower values of suction and higher gradients of infiltration, which can potentially have a negative influence of the slope stability.A modelling investigation on the mechanical reinforcement of soil by tree roots allowed us to understand the importance of hydraulic and mechanic components on the stability of a slope. Roots increase greatly the shear strength of soil (up to 25.8 kPa) through mechanical reinforcement and consequently, the safety factor of the slope increased significantly. Considering the root reinforcement in the estimation of potential failure surfaces safety factor showed that the weakest failure surface was found at 2.2 m, where the root reinforcement was 1.3 kPa, instead of 0.9 m without the root reinforcement of 13.8 kPa. The weakest failure surface found was in agreement with the failure surfaces observed from previous landslides. The test site did not present the characteristics of a landslide triggering area. The slope angle of the landslide triggering areas (35° to 45°) can easily exceed the soil friction angle (36.5° to 38.5°) and the hydraulic effect would not be enough to guarantee the stability of the slope during the wet season (0 to 10 kPa). However, the root reinforcement was estimated to be able to sustain the slopes until an angle of 42°.Therefore, the presence of tree roots was found to affect hydraulically and mechanically stability of pyroclastic soil covers. Such conclusions may be extended to the areas of Campania where C. sativa plantations are present. The hydraulic effect of vegetation was greatly compensated by the mechanical reinforcement of roots.

Soil suction is one of the main state parameters that governs unsaturated soil behaviour. Tensiometers are the only type of probe that can measure soil suction directly, but only up to 90 kPa. In the past two decades, a new type of tensiometer with much greater measurement range (up to 2 MPa) has appeared in the literature. The measurement range (i.e. capacity) of a tensiometer is limited by (i) how well it is saturated, and (ii) the air entry value of its porous interface. In this study, the first high capacity tensiometer of Turkey was designed and built. For the purpose of increasing the measurement capacity of the tensiometers, a novel saturation setup that uses a hydraulic pressurization system with capacity of 10 MPa was designed and built. A vacuum-and-pressure saturation procedure was developed. To calibrate the 10 MPa pressure transducers that form the core of the tensiometers, a high-pressure calibration setup capable of pressurizing up to 11 MPa was designed and built. By varying designs of tensiometer bodies, porous interfaces and seals, ways of increasing the suction capacity are investigated. Over a dozen tensiometer design variations are developed, and tried by exposing to atmospheric evaporation. A maximum suction measurement of 870 kPa was achieved with a conventional design / however, none of the new designs were successful. 3 successful designs were also briefly tried on soil samples