This thesis is focused on tax field concerning real property trading. Firstly basic terms and tax breakdown are described. Within the thesis tax impact will be comared by simulating different situations which may happen when buying, selling, rating or donation and inheritance of real estate brood over individuals and last but not leaf legal entities point of view.

This thesis focuses in its content on the impact of changes in the rate of value added tax on the subjects of the pharmaceutical market. Thesis explains the basic concepts of taxation and simultaneously describes the theoretical basement of price and reimbursement regulation of medicines and foods for special medical purposes. The thesis contains an analysis of the actual impact of changes in the rate of value added tax on the expenses of health insurance companies and patients.

The digital economy is growing exponentially. Companies such as Facebook and Instagram base their business model on supplying services completely free of charge to billions of users.  This model of business is called “Freeconomics”. These companies generate huge profits from the exploitation of personal data provided by Users. The peculiarity of this way of doing business, although this may seem absurd, is that the company's profit is directly proportional to the number of non-paying users. Such situations have given rise to discussions regarding the powerlessness of the tax system of states to levy tax on such profits. Regarding the indirect taxation, the question is even more difficult if one considers free digital services and personal data. Unfortunately, this flow of “digital” consumption remains completely out of a VAT assessment. Exclude a priori those transactions from being assessed for VAT purposes only because it could be arduous to assess the consumption would result in a violation of the principle of neutrality. Accordingly, issues related to the distortion of competition could also arise. The author of this thesis examines the assumption that between the Companies and the Users take place a reciprocal exchange of benefits in kind characterized by a synallagmatic relationship (quid pro quo) in the form of barter. The results of the analysis indicate that the transactions characterized by the supply of free digital services to Users in exchange for personal data - as described in the Business Reference Model - actually fall within the scope of Article 2 (1)(c) of the EU VAT Directive and therefore must be subject to indirect taxation.

The genesis of the informal sector in Mozambique is similar to the way it emerged in many other countries in the world, starting mainly with small businesses performed by unemployed people, peasent families, street vendors among others as their self employment. The informal sector offers a striking illustration of the strengths and weakness of enterprises in Mozambique. A simple and transparent legal framework, properly enforced is indispensable for the long term success of the informal sector to turn to formal sector. Taxation is controversary in the informal sector. The existing tax system in Mozambique is distorced and naturally contribute to a host of economic and social problems. The needed for the reform of taxation system has been acknowledged for instance the recent implementation of VAT system in Mozambique still on process of implementation. Taxes generated by the informal sector could contribute to the budget of the State. / Mercantile Law / LL.M.

The master's thesis is devoted to the analysis of problems and prospects for the improvement of cameral tax control in Russia. Final qualifying work consists of an introduction, three chapters, conclusion and list of references. The first chapter discusses the theoretical foundations of the organization of tax control in Russia. In the second chapter, the analysis of the effects of introducing an automatic control system in the process of introducing ASC-VAT is carried out. In the third chapter, the main directions of improving cameral tax control on VAT in Russia are examined and the possible effects of the introduction of proposals for improving the cameral control system are assessed. / Магистерская диссертация посвящена анализу проблем и перспектив совершенствования камерального налогового контроля в России. Выпускная квалификационная работа состоит из введения, трех глав, заключения и списка использованных источников. В первой главе рассмотрены теоретические основы организации налогового контроля в России. Во второй главе проведён анализ эффектов внедрения автоматической системы контроля в процессе внедрения АСК-НДС. В третьей главе рассмотрены основные направления совершенствования камерального налогового контроля по НДС в России и проведена оценка возможных эффектов при внедрении предлагаемых предложений по совершенствованию системы камерального контроля.

Thesis is focused on fight against indirect tax evasion. This topic was selected because it is a current issue. This is evidenced by media coverage regarding revealed tax evasion schemes; total estimated volume of tax evaded and increased activity of legislator in this field. The thesis is divided into three parts. In first part, I start with a general description of indirect taxes. I subsequently proceed with description of individual indirect taxes in the Czech Republic - value added tax, excise tax, and energy tax - and a brief summary of their evolution, main principles of functioning and their sources of law, both Czech and European. In second part, I tackle the problem of tax optimization, in particular the difference between legal and illegal methods of lowering ones tax. For this purpose, I go into more detail in explaining differences between tax planning, tax avoidance and tax evasion. I also draw attention to problems related to distinguishing these categories and to how these are interpreted differently by tax authorities in Anglo-Saxon and Continental area. After establishing theoretical background, I proceed by describing particular methods of evading tax, focusing mainly at illegal imports and carousel fraud, which, according to the Ministry of Finance, deprives Czech Republic of CZK 15...

The thesis deals with the issue of VAT reporting within intracommunity trade operations. The aim of the thesis is to give clear explanation of the current VAT system in the EU, show several practical examples of different intracommunity trade operations, and finally to show the scope of VAT frauds issue together with analysing the measures EU and member states have taken and are planning to take in order to fight the massive fraud. In the chapters devoted to explaining the existing VAT system in the EU following issues are described: - VAT harmonisation process in the EU, - VAT system in the EU, - Particular intracommunity transactions from the VAT point of view. In the chapters devoted to VAT fraud issue are following aspects covered: - VAT fraud typology, explanation of the most frequent fraud schemes, - EU fraud statistics and existing ways of measuring fraud volume, - European court of justice activity in solving VAT fraud cases, - EU and Czech republic measures to tackle VAT fraud, - several advices on how not to become involved in the fraud scheme.

The dissertation is dedicated to application of value added tax to an international trade in goods while it focuses on so called intra-Community supplies between EU member states. It focuses also on the extent to which the transitional VAT system is applicable in terms of European single market. The aim of the dissertation was to map existing and possible future development of the VAT system in the area of the intra-Community supplies and its legal framework. The primarily task was to analyze relevant legislation (first Directive 2006/112/EC and Act No. 235/2004 Coll., about the value added tax, as amended) taking into account case law of Court of Justice of EU and national courts of individual EU member states, including the application of the results of analysis on specific selected transactions. A fundamental question seems to be how to prove a fulfillment of conditions for application of the VAT exemption on delivering goods to another EU member state. The condition which appears to be most risky is that the supplier is obliged to prove that the goods left the national territory, especially in a situation where the actual transport is arranged by the customer and the supplier must largely rely on the information that he receives from the customer. The position of the supplier is complicated by...

一般而言，租稅課徵的標的有所得、消費和財富三種，而在複式稅制下，三者同等重要。台灣地區光復初期的消費稅由於著重於財政收入和所得重分配等功能，因此較偏重於貨物稅之課徵；然自民國七十五年營業稅改制後，並採行加值型之課徵方式，整個銷售稅體系出現了重大的變化。由於消費稅係對消費行為課徵，與經濟及社會發展情況息息相關。再者，隨著時代的變遷，傳統以個人對社會貢獻之「所得」為納稅能力的衡量指標，已引起不少爭議，而對個人消耗社會資源的「消費」為課徵標的之加值稅，則相對受到重視。本文針對民國四十年以後台灣地區營業稅制度做整體性的探討，從觀察制度歷年之演變情形、發展趨勢，以及參考國際間實施概況，進而對現行制度做相關的問題檢討，並提出改進的建議。 茲將本研究重要結論，歸納為下列幾點： 一、觀察歷年營業稅和貨物稅占賦稅收入之比重可發現，在民國七十五年之前，貨物稅所占比重約為營業稅所占比重的兩倍左右；而在七十五年之後，營業稅所占比重已超過貨物稅，且呈現上升趨勢。顯示七十五年營業稅改制後，我國租稅結構已由原先以特種銷售稅為主，轉變成以一般銷售稅為主，並與OECD國家消費稅之發展趨勢相符。此外，由於舊制營業稅稅收占賦稅收入之比重一直維持在10%以下，而七十五年改制後所占比重躍升為13.5%，至八十八年時並已上升到18.6%，足見新制營業稅在整體財政上地位之提升。 二、鑒於OECD國家加值稅發展之趨勢為普遍提高稅率，且近年來大多維持在15~25%左右。而我國現行5%的稅率水準，乃營業稅改制時，基於總稅收不變的考量下所訂定，迄今雖已實施逾十五年，然對該稅率水準則未曾予以調整。再者，我國營業稅自改制後，雖歷年營業稅稅收占賦稅收入之比重與OECD國家歷年加值稅占總稅收比重之平均水準相當，約為17%左右，然而在占GDP和占消費支出之比重方面，卻遠較OECD國家平均水準偏低，我國各約占2~3.2%和2.5~4.5%之間，而OECD國家各約占5~6%和7%左右。顯示我國營業稅稅收仍有成長的空間。此外，根據實證研究顯示，溫和的調高營業稅稅率，對物價衝擊應是一次性的，且上漲程度有限。另由歷年之統計資料估算得知，40~75年營業稅稅收之所得彈性係數值約為0.9708，而76~88年約為1.2745，顯示營業稅改制後更具稅收彈性，並能隨經濟發展而穩定成長。 三、觀察歷年營業稅稅收和營業稅稅源中營業額之變化情形可發現，大體上，兩者變動的方向一致，惟各年之增長情形並受制度或經濟面影響，而變化幅度相當大。另由歷年營業稅稅源中各業營業額所占比重來看，以商業和製造業所占比重居高，大約在30~45%左右，而其他各業則大多維持在10%以下，足見商業和製造業在營業稅稅源中，扮演相當重要的角色。另自七十八年起，由於金融業的蓬勃發展，使近年來金融業大約占營業稅稅源的15%左右，故其重要性亦不容忽視。 四、理論上，加值稅體系下之免稅範圍愈小，則經濟中立性的功能將愈顯著。而我國現行營業稅法之免稅項目共計三十二款，分析其免稅性質可發現，主要以配合農業政策、配合社會福利政策、提升教育文化水準和避免重複課稅等居多。而其中在配合農業政策方面，由於對農漁業用之機器設備及其所用油、電等免稅，在認定上有所困難，易引起營業人假農業之名移作他用，不但造成稅務行政上的困擾，並易引發租稅逃漏。而在有關非營利組織之免稅項目方面，除了有關醫療、慈善活動及教育文化勞務等方面與國際規範較相符外，其餘大多為改制之初，為避免牽連過廣、衝擊太大，乃沿襲舊制保留下來，多缺乏堅強的免稅理由。此外，對於經主管機關核准設立之學術、科技研究機構所提供之研究勞務予以免稅，將產生不公平之競爭，不但違背租稅中性原則，並可能引發租稅逃漏之誘因。 五、金融保險業是整個經濟體系中密不可分的一環，基於租稅中性原則，理論上應將其納入加值稅體系課徵，以維持租稅公平。然而，由於對金融保險業課加值稅在實務上之困難，及資本、金融勞務等在國際間極具移動性，故一般多予以免稅處理。綜觀大多數採行加值稅之OECD國家，皆將金融保險勞務納入加值稅體系，而對主要業務予以免稅處理，對次要業務課以標準稅率。反觀我國於營業稅改制之初，鑒於課徵技術之困難，而將金融保險業排除於加值稅體系外，按銷售總額課徵，且進項稅額不得扣抵。此種作法不但違反租稅中性原則，且與一般國際慣例不相符。惟日前已修法通過，規定自民國九十五年起，金融機構經營專屬本業之銷售額將免徵營業稅。由於此規定較合乎理論基礎及一般國際慣例，相信對未來整個金融體系的發展，當有正面的助益。 六、本文的建議 (1)適切的提高營業稅稅率：在提高營業稅稅率之際，並應考慮將小規模營業人之稅率按同比例提高，使彼此納稅地位維持不變。同時配合取消或合併部分貨物稅項目，使整體稅制更完善。 (2)刪除不合時宜的免稅項目：建議取消營業稅法第八條第一項第八、十、十一、十二及十三等五款有關非營利組織之免稅規定，第二十七、二十八款有關農漁業用之機器設備及其所用油、電等之免稅規定，以及第三十一款有關學術科技研究勞務之免稅規定。若政府想要幫助某特定對象或是鼓勵某特定行為，最好採用移轉支付的方式。

台灣的經濟主要以外銷為導向，近年來因為中國大陸經濟崛起，隨著兩岸經濟的逐漸開放，供應商產業外移，無論傳統產業或高科技產業製造相關企業，西進中國大陸已成台灣產業發展主流，貿易商採用多角貿易進行各種不同商業活動方式早已發展為台灣企業從事國際多角貿易的交易模式，而現行稅務主管機關對傳統外銷之各項租稅規定、法令規範、稽徵程序、實務審核作業規範等，對於台灣產業國際多角貿易類型，產生許多租稅疑義。因此，本論文以問卷調查方法，探討台灣企業從事國際多角貿易面臨之租稅相關議題，以提出改進我國企業從事國際多角貿易之相關租稅規範建議，供政府主管機關參考。 　　本文的問卷結果顯示，國際多角貿易之營業比重在台灣產業已占有舉足輕重之地位，且超過50%受訪企業認為，公司從事國際多角貿易交易與傳統直接外銷，不論在經濟實質、權利義務或風險瑕疵責任歸屬，兩者均相同。有70%以上之受訪企業表示對現行加值型營業稅及營利事業所得稅，在適用上產生困擾。雖然，現行法令對於公司從事國際多角貿易交易收入有銷貨及勞務之區分，但本文的問卷結果顯示有超過80%以上受訪企業認為企業從事國際多角貿易交易的性質係屬銷貨行為，並希望財政部簡化現行對國際多角貿易交易之課稅規範。 　　本論文建議，要健全國際多角貿易課稅規範，消弭國際多角貿易之租稅疑議，首先，必須打破現行課稅法令對國際多角貿易區分由國內出貨或第三地出貨，依出貨地是否在中華民國境內而有不同認定之迷失。其次，對國際多角貿易之會計處理應回歸交易實質，不應藉由課稅之考量來左右會計基礎之入帳原則。最後，財政部應簡化現行對國際多角貿易之課稅規範，減少企業因複雜之課稅規定而將第三地出貨之多角貿易收入規避不列入台灣之營業收入。 / Taiwan's economy is primarily export-oriented. In recent years, because of the rise of economy in mainland China, with cross-strait economy liberalization and relocation of suppliers, both traditional and high technology industry businesses have been moving to mainland China as mainstream of Taiwan's industrial development. Multi-lateral transactions have been adopted by Taiwanese companies in engaging in various international business activities. However, tax laws and regulations, as well as assessment procedures adopted by Taiwan tax authorities, on multi-lateral business have triggered many tax disputes. Therefore, with surveys by questionnaires, this study aims to investigate into the relevant tax issues in the multi-lateral international trade of Taiwanese enterprises and propose suggestions for the tax authorities to improve Taiwan tax treatment on multi-lateral international trade. 　　The questionnaire results show that multi-lateral international trade has become a dominant business model in Taiwan industry, more than 50% of the respondents consider both multi-lateral international trade transactions and the traditional direct export are the same, with respect to economic substance, rights and obligations or liability risks of the transactions. More than 70% of the respondents indicate that they have encountered problems when applying to the existing value-added tax law and business income tax law. Although the existing reguations for companies engaging in multi-lateral international trade transactions classify such transactions into sales and services in their respective tax treatments, the questionnaire results show that more than 80% of the respondents consider such transactions should be all regarded as sales of goods, and urge the Ministry of Finance to simplify the existing taxation on such transactions. 　　This paper proposes the following suggestions to make taxation on multi-lateral international transactions more reasonable and enforceable. First of all, the existing taxation on multi-lateral international trade should not classify such transactions as domestic shipment or third place shipment solely by whether the shipping point is in the territory of Republic of China or not. Second, the accounting for international multi-lateral trade should reflect the substance of such transactions instead of following the tax law treatment. Third, the Ministry of Finance should simplify the existing tax treatment for multi-lateral international trade to prevent Taiwanese enterprises from under-reporting multi-lateral international trade revenues derived from third place shipment in filing Taiwan business income tax because of the complexity of the exitng tax regulations.