Este trabalho descreve diversos aspectos da formação de perguntas complexas, orações subordinadas e ordem de palavras no Karitiana, uma língua Tupi da família Arikém. Primeiramente, descrevemos a formação de perguntas bi-oracionais como perguntas indiretas e perguntas de longa-distância. No primeiro caso, argumentamos que perguntas indiretas strictu sensu não existem em Karitiana, pois pronomes interrogativos não são em geral permitidos dentro de orações subordinadas. Já perguntas de longa-distância são possíveis na língua, mas sua formação inclui uma estratégia conhecida como pied-piping de larga-escala, na qual a oração subordinada inteira contendo o pronome interrogativo é movida para a posição inicial da sentença. Argumentamos que estes dois fatos podem ser capturados se assumirmos uma estrutura para orações subordinadas (1) que não contém certos núcleos oracionais, como C; e (2) que é a projeção de um núcleo nominalizador n. Essas propriedades seriam capazes de explicar o comportamento ambíguo destas construções, que ora se comportam como orações, ora como sintagmas nominais. Além disso, essa proposta também explica outros fenômenos aparentemente não relacionadas, como a ausência de tough-constructions, a extração com verbos factivos, a cliticização em subordinadas e a presença de relativas de núcleo interno. Propomos ainda que este núcleo n de caráter nominal teria como uma possível realização fonética um sufixo -a, que pode ser detectado em diversos ambientes nominais da língua e que possivelmente teria conexões históricas com o nominalizador -a presente em outras línguas Tupi. Na segunda parte deste trabalho, discutimos ainda construções com o morfema de voz inversa ti-, reanalisadas aqui como configurações de redobro de clítico. Essa proposta é capaz de explicar diversas propriedades deste morfema, como sua emergência em diferentes construções, o padrão de concordância excêntrica disparado por ele, a distribuição complementar com a passiva e a leitura pressuposicional do tema nestes ambientes. Por fim, discutimos ainda dois fenômenos prosódicos - o sufixo -o e a intonação de relativas de objeto com ti- - que poderiam constituir argumentos adicionais para as análises desenvolvidas neste trabalho. / This dissertation investigates aspects of question formation, embedded clauses, and word order in Karitiana, a Tupi-Arikém language spoken in Brazil. Firstly, the formation of bi-clausal questions such as indirect questions and long-distance questions is described. Regarding indirect questions, our claim is that there are no indirect questions in Karitiana, as interrogative pronouns are usually disallowed inside embedded clauses. On the other hand, the language has long-distance questions, but they obligatorily involve a strategy known as clausal/large-scale pied-piping - i.e., fronting of the whole embedded clause containing the interrogative pronoun. These two facts can be explained if one assumes a structure for embedded clauses that does not contain certain clausal projections, such as CP, and that includes a nominalizing head n. These properties also account for the mixed behavior of these constructions, which exhibit a clausal template while manifesting several nominal features. Moreover, the proposed analysis also explains other apparently non-related properties of the language, such as the lack of tough-constructions, extraction with factive verbs, obligatory cliticization, and internally-headed relative clauses. Additionally, we claim that this nominal head has a phonetic realization as a suffix -a, detected in several nominal phrases and which is possibly linked to a Tupian nominalizer of the same form. In part II, we discuss constructions with the inverse voice morpheme ti-, claiming that these can be reanalyzed as cases of clitic-doubling. This analysis accounts for several properties of this preffix, such as its presence in cases of WHmovement, the eccentric pattern of agreement that it triggers, the complementary distribution with the passive, and the pressupositional reading of the theme in these constructions. Finally, two prosodic phenomena - the suffix -o and the intonational pattern of object relative clauses with ti- - are describedin detail and it will be shown how these provide additional evidence for the analyses developed in this dissertation.

Este trabalho tem como tema a aquisição do constituinte-QU in situ por crianças adquirindo o Português Brasileiro (doravante PB). Tal construção é encontrada em outras línguas também e, de modo análogo ao PB, é aparentemente opcional no Espanhol e no Francês. Realizando um paralelo entre os estudos de outras línguas e o PB, analisamos a frequência da construção na fala infantil no PB, comparada à fala adulta, e, principalmente, os contextos que favorecem sua produção, em oposição à contraparte movida. Para tanto, utilizamos uma metodologia experimental que elicia perguntas em contextos sem e com Common Ground (informação previamente compartilhada) e com priming sintático (fenômeno em que a exposição a uma sentença facilita o processamento de uma outra sentença com estrutura igual ou similar), com o objetivo de verificar em quais contextos a produção de QU-in situ é facilitada. Além disso, observamos também a escolha da estratégia de pergunta diante da influência exercida pelo estatuto do elemento-QU (como adjunto ou argumento). Os resultados das análises quantitativas sugerem que, na fala infantil, há um favorecimento do QU-in situ em contextos de Common Ground. Também ficou clara a influência do priming sintático na fala de ambos os grupos, infantil e adulto. Podemos dizer, então, que a metodologia obteve sucesso na eliciação da construção estudada e evidenciou que as perguntas com QU-in situ e QU-movido, embora aparentemente opcionais, não são intercambiáveis, já que o primeiro tipo de pergunta ocorreria na fala infantil apenas em um contexto pragmático específico. / This study explores the acquisition of Wh-questions in which the whconstituent remains in situ by children acquiring Brazilian Portuguese (henceforth BP). Such construction is found in other languages as well and, like in BP, it is optional in Spanish and in French. Drawing a parallel between the studies of other languages and BP, we analyze the frequency of the construction in child speech, compared to the adult speech, and, most importantly, the contexts that favor its production, in opposition to its moved counterpart. In order to do so, we used an experimental methodology that elicits questions in contexts with and without Common Ground (previously shared information) and contexts with syntactic Priming (phenomenon in which the exposure to an utterance facilitates the processing of another utterance with the same or similar structure), with the purpose of checking which contexts facilitate the production of Wh-in situ. Besides that, we also investigated the choice of question strategy in face of the influence imposed by the status of the wh-element (as adjunct or argument). Results of the quantitative analyses suggest that, in child speech,Wh-in situ is favored in contexts of Common Ground. It also has been clear that theres an influence of the syntactic Priming in both adult and child speech. Therefore, we point out that the methodology was successful in eliciting Wh-in situ questions and has made it clear that Wh-in situ and moved Wh, although apparently optional, are not interchangeable, since the first one is bound to a specific pragmatic context in child speech.

This dissertation consists of two studies, which respectively investigate L2 Chinese learners' acquisition of simple wh-questions of different grammatical functions longitudinally over their first-year learning and their acquisition of indirect questions and wh-questions in complements at the end of their first year. The participants consisted of 21 first-year English-speaking learners of Chinese. Both grammaticality judgment (GJ) and oral production (OP) tests were used. Study 1 reports that only attributive wh-questions posed more difficulty to the participants than object wh-questions in OP test at the beginning stage, and adverbial wh-questions and object wh-questions were not found to be significantly different to the participants as reported in some L1 and L2 studies. This author attributed this to the different syntactic mechanism that L2 learners of movement language and learners of in-situ language go through. The initial stage of participants' grammar did not display a clear presence of [+wh] feature strength, and the development of the [-wh] feature strength in learners' L2 grammar was not linear, but U-shaped. Study 2 reveals that learners' performance on indirect questions and wh-questions in object complements was not as good as their performance on simple wh-questions at the end of first year learning. For indirect questions, the initial stage of participants' L2 grammar showed an obvious L1 influence, the embedded [+wh]. For wh-questions in complements, it did not show an L1 influence, the matrix [+wh], but an embedded [+wh], which is non-target like but resembles wide-scope wh-questions with an embedded [+wh] in Malay and Madurese. Learners' performance on simple wh-questions patterned together with that in matrix clauses of wh-questions in complements, which was better than their performance on embedded clauses of the two types of complex wh-questions. Evidence for connection between their performance on simple wh-questions and matrix clauses of wh-questions in complements regarding the grammatical feature that wh-words are not allowed in clause initial position was revealed, but there was no strong evidence for connection between their performance on embedded clauses of the two types of complex wh-questions. It suggests that learners might be using different strategies for acquisition of structures of different natures.

Le mécanisme de Higgs fournit au Modéle Standard une théorie de l'origine de la masse des bosons de jauge et des fermions élémentaires. Le boson de Higgs n'a pas encore été découvert, mais une limite inférieure à sa masse a été posée à 114,4 GeV à 95% de niveau de confiance par les collaborations Lep. La recherche du Higgs continue maintenant au Tevatron, un collisionneur proton - anti-proton d'énergie dans le centre de masse de 1,96TeV. À basse masse le canal le plus sensible est la production associée d'un Higgs avec un boson W. Une analyse a été conduite dans le canal de désintégration dans lequel le Higgs donne une paire bb et le W se désintègre en un muon et un neutrino sur 1 fb-1 de données du Run II enregistrées par le détecteur DØ. L'analyse s'appuie sur tous les sous-systèmes du détecteur, tout particulièrement sur le calorimètre qui est un élément essentiel pour la reconstruction du système bb. Une bonne trajectographie et un réseau de neurones d'identification des jets de b fournissent un étiquetage des b performant, ce qui est crucial pour cette analyse. La résolution en énergie des jets étant de première importance lorsqu'on recherche une résonance de deux jets, un travail d'amélioration de la calibration en énergie des jets qui présentent un muon et un neutrino dans leur chaîne de désintégration a également été conduit. L'analyse WH est effectuée sur des évènements à topologie de type W + 2 jets et W + 3 jets. Des évènements contenant un muon, de l'énergie transverse manquante et deux ou trois jets sont sélectionnés ; les jets sont ensuite étiquetés selon leur saveur. Les canaux simplement et doublement étiquetés sont analysés séparément afin d'obtenir une sensibilité plus importante. L'introduction d'une séparation signal / bruit de fond par réseau de neurones a également permis d'augmenter la sensibilité. Cette recherche d'un boson de Higgs standard a été effectuée pour une masse du Higgs s'étalant entre 100 et 150 GeV. Des limites supérieures sur la section efficace de production multipliée par le rapport d'embranchement sont calculées. Pour une masse du Higgs de 115 GeV, la limite supérieure est de 2,00 pb à 95% de niveau de confiance dans le canal WH to munubb et de 1,37 pb si l'on combine les canaux WH to munubb et WH to enubb, à comparer à la valeur théorique de 0,136 pb. Ces résultats ont été soumis pour publication et sont utilisés dans la combinaison globale des analyses de recherche du Higgs par les collaboration Cdf et DØ.

This paper presents the results of a production experiment on the intonation of sentences containing a negative polarity item (NPI) in Tokyo Japanese. The results show that NPI sentences exhibit a focus intonation: the F₀-peak of the word to which an NPI is attached is raised, while the pitch contour after the NPI-attached word is compressed until the negation. This intonation pattern is parallel to that of wh-question, in which the F₀ of the wh-phrase is raised while the post-wh-contour is compressed until the question particle.

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This study explored the relationship between syntax and semantics in an effort to provide evidence against a strict theory of the Autonomy of Syntax. The evidence was provided by an acceptability survey given to 20 native, adult Mexicans who ranked both declarative and wh-questions which manifested a filler-gap relationship where the gap was located in an embedded noun clause. The main verbs were controlled for semantic depth by being ranked within verbal categories according to external evidence of markedness or semantic depth. The primary hypothesis was that semantically deeper verbs would add to the already increased strain on working memory associated with filler-gap processing, thereby resulting in decreased acceptability. The results of the survey showed that, while this hypothesis held true to some degree, further research will be required to confirm the results and to further understand the intricate interactions between syntax and semantics.

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Die Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit den möglichen Gründen für die divergente evolutionäre Entwicklung von Beuteltieren und plazentalen Säugetieren nach der Kreide/Tertiär-Grenze. Eine Erklärung könnten ihre unterschiedlichen Reproduktionsstrategien sein. Während die Beuteltiere sehr embryonale Jungtiere nach einer kurzen Tragzeit gebären, bringen Plazentalier deutlich weiter entwickelte Jungtiere nach einer relativ langen Tragzeit zur Welt. Die Aufrechterhaltung eines stabilen Metabolismus und thermoregulatorische Fähigkeiten der Jungtiere bieten einen großen Vorteil für die Anpassungsfähigkeit an ungünstige Umweltbedingungen, wie sie für die K/T-Grenze vermutet werden. Aus diesem Grund untersucht diese Studie den strukturelle Entwicklungsgrad der Lunge und die metabolischen Fähigkeiten von neonaten Marsupialia und Plazentalia. Histologische, ultrastrukturelle und kalorimetrische Untersuchungen erfolgten in einer integrativen Studie. Basierend auf den Ergebnissen wurde eine Grundplanrekonstruktionen der Neonaten von Marsupialia und Plazentalia durchgeführt. Als Vertreter für nesthockende Plazentalia wurde der Goldhamster (Mesocricetus auratus), die Moschusspitzmaus (Suncus murinus) und das Belangeri Spitzhörnchen (Tupaia belangeri) untersucht. Das Wildmeerschweinchen (Cavia aperea) und die Kurzohr-Elefantenspitzmaus (Macroscelides proboscideus) repräsentieren die nestflüchtenden Plazentalia. Als Marsupialia wurden die Hausspitzmaus-Beutelratte (Monodelphis domestica) und das Tammar-Wallaby (Macropus eugenii) untersucht. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen die starken Unterschiede im Entwicklungsgrad der Neonaten und in der postnatalen Entwicklung zwischen Marsupialia und Plazentalia. Die neonatalen Lungen von M. auratus und S. murinus befinden sich im späten “terminal air sac”-Stadium und weisen viele kleine Atemkammern von 50-80 µm Durchmesser auf. Die Alveolenbildung erfolgt bei M. auratus und S. murinus bereits im Alter von zwei beziehungsweise vier Tagen. Bei T. belangeri, C. aperea und M. proboscideus sind Alveolen bereits zum Zeitpunkt der Geburt vorhanden. Im Gegensatz dazu, befinden sich die Lungen der neonaten Beuteltiere M. domestica und M. eugenii im frühen “terminal air sac”-Stadium mit wenigen großen Atemkammern von 300-400 µm im Durchmesser. Die postnatale Lungenentwicklung erfolgt sehr langsam und die Alveolenbildung startet mit 28 Tagen bei M. domestica und mit 65 Tagen bei M. eugenii. Die Metabolismusmessungen ergaben, daß Marsupialia mit einer niedrigen Metabolismusrate geboren werden und den Adultmetabolismus erst spät in der postnatalen Entwicklung erreichen. Einhergehend mit der weit entwickelten Lungenstruktur weisen die Plazentalia hohe Metabolismusraten zur Geburt auf und erreichen den Adultmetabolismus innerhalb der ersten Lebenswoche. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Jungtiere der Plazentalia, im Vergleich zu jungen Marsupialia, eine höhere Widerstandskraft gegen Umweltschwankungen haben, was als ein evolutiver Vorteil der Reproduktionsstrategie der Plazentalia unter ungünstigen Klimabedingungen interpretiert werden kann. / This project deals with the possible reasons for the evolutionary differentiation between marsupial and placental mammals after the K/T-event. One explanation could be their different reproductive patterns. Marsupialia bear virtually embryonic young after a brief gestation period. In contrast, many eutherians bear anatomically advanced, highly precocious young after a relatively long gestation period. A stable metabolism and thermoregulatory abilities of the young are considered to offer a large adaptive advantage in a changing environment, how it is presumed for the K/T-boundary. Therefore this study determines the developmental stage and the respiratory efficiency of the lungs of marsupial and placental young. Histological, ultrastructural and calorimetric investigations were carried out in an integrated study and from the results morphotype reconstructions of the marsupial and placental neonates were carried out. As representatives for altricial Placentalia, the Golden hamster (Mesocricetus auratus), the Musk shrew (Suncus murinus), and the Belanger’s tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri) were examined. Furthermore the Guinea pig (Cavia aperea) and Short-eared elephant shrew (Macroscelides proboscideus) as typical precocial Placentalia were included. The Marsupialia were represented by the Grey short-tailed opossum (Monodelphis domestica) and the Tammar wallaby (Macropus eugenii). The results confirm clear differences in the developmental degree of the neonates and the postnatal development between marsupial and placental mammals. The newborn lungs of the altricially born placentals M. auratus and S. murinus are at the late terminal air sac stage with numerous small air sacs of 50 - 80 µm in diameter. Alveoli are formed shortly after birth at the age of 2 days in M. auratus and at the age of 4 days in S. murinus. In T. belangeri and in the precocially born C. aperea alveoli are already present at birth. In contrast, the lungs of the newborn marsupials M. domestica and M. eugenii are at the early terminal air sac stage with few large air sacs of 300 – 400 µm in diameter. The postnatal lung development proceeds very slowly in marsupials and alveoli are not present before the age of 28 days in M. domestica and 65 days in M. eugenii. The metabolic investigations demonstrate that Marsupialia have a low metabolism at birth and achieve the adult metabolism late in the postnatal development. All examined Placentalia showed the same pattern of oxygen consumption. Corresponding to their advanced differentiation of the lungs they also exhibit high metabolic abilities at birth and reach the adult metabolism during the first week of life. During this critical period placental young have a higher resistance against certain environmental stresses than marsupial young and this could mean an evolutionary advantage of the placental “reproductive strategy” under suboptimal climatic conditions.