<p>This thesis assessed the effectiveness of the Special Court in relation to the impact is has made in cultivating the rudiments of a human rights culture, dispensing justice, ending a culture of impunity, effecting unity and national reconciliation in post war Sierra Leone.</p>

This thesis deals with the involvement of the Austrians in the 2nd tank division SS "Das Reich." The introductory part analyzes personnel cast of the division and aims at finding the answer to the question, in which period the largest number of the Austrians served in the division and possibly how many. The main focus is put on the question, whether the Austrians in the division who owned the highest army decorations of the Third Reich were represented by below-average or above-average numbers in view of their total number. We can not omit to mention a social profile of these decorated men, which provides us with broader point of view of their personalities. Last but not least, the thesis deals with the question, whether the Austrians took part in war crimes committed by the division. Key words: division "Das Reich", Waffen-SS, Austrians, social profile, war crimes, high decorations

A presente dissertação de mestrado analisa a atuação do Tribunal Penal Internacional para Ruanda, corte com sede na Tanzânia, criada sob os auspícios da ONU e encarregada de processar as pessoas responsáveis por sérias violações ao Direito Internacional Humanitário cometidas durante o genocídio da população tutsi organizado por membros do governo e do exército de Ruanda em 1994, e que vitimou mais de 800.000 civis. Estuda-se a evolução do Direito Internacional Penal ao longo do século XX até a criação do Tribunal e a história e a organização política de Ruanda até a eclosão da guerra civil e do genocídio. Apresenta-se a estrutura, a competência e a dinâmica dos julgamentos, promove-se o estudo de quatro casos paradigmáticos julgados, e verificam-se os resultados concretos alcançados pelo Tribunal para impedir a impunidade, apontando este órgão judicial como importante precursor do Tribunal Penal Internacional criado pelo Estatuto de Roma em 1998. O trabalho também ambiciona perpetuar a lembrança de um dos maiores massacres da história, comparável ao próprio Holocausto, e o tratamento dado pelo Direito e pela comunidade internacional ao episódio / This dissertation examines the performance of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, Tanzania-based court, created under the auspices of the UN, in charge of prosecuting people responsible for serious violations of International Humanitarian Law committed during the genocide of the Tutsi population, organized by members of the government and the army of Rwanda in 1994, which killed over 800,000 civilians. It is studied the evolution of International Criminal Law over the twentieth century until the establishment of the Court, and also the history and the political organization in Rwanda until the outbreak of civil war and genocide. This dissertation presents the structure, competence and dynamics of the trials, promotes the study of four paradigmatic cases tried, and verifies the concrete results achieved by the Court to prevent impunity, pointing this judicial body as an important forerunner of the International Criminal Court created by the Rome Statute in 1998. The study also aspires to perpetuate the memory of one of the greatest massacres in history, comparable to the Holocaust itself, and treatment given by the law and by the international community to the episode

Le paroxysme atteint par la diffusion incontrôlée durant les années 1990 du phénomène des enfants soldats a obligé la communauté internationale à renforcer la protection des enfants et à instituer des garanties supplémentaires à l’égard des enfants touchés par les conflits armés. Les zones d’instabilité politique, les conflits, ainsi que l'impunité quasi généralisée en matière de violations graves des droits de l’homme ont été les principales sources de la montée en puissance du phénomène des enfants soldats. L’objectif qui consistait à mettre fin à l’implication illégale d'enfants dans les conflits armés a nécessité une coopération étroite entre tous les États concernés cependant que divers problèmes d’ordre juridique n’ont pas tardé à faire leur apparition. Par ailleurs, la diversité des ordres juridiques et la variété des approches doctrinales quant à la définition de la notion d’« enfant » ont rendu difficile une approche consensuelle. L’institution d'une responsabilité pénale internationale pour le recrutement des enfants, érigé en crime de guerre, n’était qu’un début. La question de la justice dans les pays sortis des conflits est toujours d'actualité et l’adoption d’autres formes de justice s’avère indispensable dans le processus de réconciliation et de réinsertion des enfants. La responsabilité pénale des enfants soldats est examinée sous son double aspect victime / bourreau, en abordant certaines affaires emblématiques. / The uncontrolled spread of the phenomenon of child soldiers culminated in such a point during the 1990s that the international community was forced to strengthen the protection of children by introducing additional safeguards for children affected by armed conflict. Some of the main explanations for the rise of the phenomenon of child soldiers have been: areas of political instability, conflicts and almost universal impunity in cases of serious human rights violations. The objective of putting an end to the illegal involvement of children in armed conflict required close cooperation between all states concerned. Yet, legal complications did not take long to appear. Moreover, the diversity of legal systems and the variety of doctrinal approaches to the definition of the term "child" made a consensual approach difficult. The international criminalization of recruiting children, defined as a war crime, was just the beginning. The issue of justice in countries emerging from conflict is still relevant today and the adoption of other forms of justice is essential in the process of reconciliation and reintegration of former child soldiers. The criminal accountability of child soldiers is examined in its dual aspect of victim/executioner, addressing some emblematic cases.

<p>The first part of this study evaluates the historical events that led to the referral of the DRC situation to the ICC. This includes the background of the conflict and the extent to which international crimes have been committed. Both regional and domestic attempts and initiatives to address the conflict are discussed, with specific reference to peace agreements and restorative justice mechanisms. The second part of the study deals with the prosecution of the perpetrators by the ICC. It examines the approach of the Pre- Trial Chamber to two legal issues, the principle of complementarity and modes of criminal participation as part of the ICC Statute. In this regard, the study makes a critical evaluation of two preliminary decisions confirming the charges against Lubanga, Katanga and Chui before the cases proceeded to the trial stage.</p>

<p>This research paper is an analysis of the case United States v Flick et al which took place in 1947 in Nuremberg, Germany. Friedrich Flick, a powerful German industrialist, and several high ranking officials of his firm were tried by a United States military tribunal for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed during the Third Reich. The&nbsp / proceedings and the decision itself are the subject of a critical examination, including an investigation of the factual and legal background. The trial will be regarded in the historical context of prosecutions against German industrialists after World War II. Seen from present-day perspective, the question will be raised whether any conclusions can be drawn from the Flick case in respect of the substance of present-day international criminal law. <br /> &nbsp / </p>

<p>This paper analyses head of state immunity, a traditional rule of international law, in relation to the indictments by the International Criminal Court (ICC) in 2009 against the current Sudanese President Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir. It can be agreed that the doctrine of immunity in international law attempts to overcome the tension between the protection of human rights and the demands of state sovereignty. The statutes and decisions of international criminal courts make it clear that no immunity for international crimes shall be attached to heads of states or to senior government officials. However, the case against the Sudanese President, where the jurisdiction of the ICC was triggered by the UN Security Council‟s referral of the situation in Darfur to the Court, represents the first case where a serving head of state has, in fact, been indicted before the ICC. From this case, a number of legal issues have arisen / such as the questions where the ICC‟s jurisdiction over an incumbent head of state, not party to the ICC Statute, is justified, and the obligations upon ICC state parties to surrender such a head of state to the requesting international criminal court. This paper gives an analysis of these questions.</p>

This thesis is a qualitative analysis of the international legal response to rape as war crime in the former Yugoslavia. Through the examination of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the case law it has generated, this thesis addresses the question will the androcentric characteristics of law found in domestic rape cases be replicated at the international level? More specifically this thesis undertakes an examination which questions will international law be able to adequately amplify and listen to women voices, or will the women’s words be silenced by the rule of law? The following research is loosely informed by Carol Smart’s (1989) sociology of law theory combined with Liz Kelly’s (1988) notions of coping, resisting, and surviving. The purpose of using Kelly’s theory is to go beyond viewing women as inevitable victims of sexual assault. The methodological approach is both qualitative and inductive. It draws on data from the ICTY structure, Statute, Rules of Procedures and Evidence, case law and transcripts and women’s stories presented outside the legal realm. The analysis reveals that while written law (including the interpretation and application of the law) is somewhat aware of the experiences of women, it falls short of adequately responding to the needs of women. A detailed look at the women’s stories of war revealed diverse experiences not captured in the legal realm. The women’s stories spoke of concerns beyond sexual assault and other crimes identified by the ICTY Statute. This thesis also introduces alternatives or complimentary approaches to law when dealing with war crimes. These alternatives include women’s local groups and truth commissions. This thesis also identifies the criminological relevance of studying war crimes (as defined by international law) and crimes of war and marks an important step in understanding rape and war from a criminological perspective. / February 2005

Esta investigación está dedicada al estudio de los crímenes de guerra y, en el marco de esta categoría de Derecho Internacional Penal, busca constatar los términos de su incorporación al derecho interno colombiano. En este sentido, se persigue identificar si, y de qué manera, la práctica jurídica nacional incorpora las exigencias del Derecho Internacional Penal en materia de elementos constitutivos, de responsabilidad penal individual y de ejercicio de la jurisdicción competente. Particularmente, se pretende desvelar los límites de la acción penal nacional en materia de crímenes de guerra y los límites de la jurisdicción en su ejercicio penal, con el fin de establecer el papel de cooperación y complementariedad de la Corte Penal Internacional (CPI). El Capítulo I desarrolla los antecedentes remotos y recientes de la noción de crímenes de guerra. El estudio histórico privilegia la dimensión jurídica, teniendo en cuenta la evolución del Derecho Internacional, a partir de la construcción de la soberanía estatal y haciendo énfasis en la consolidación del concepto de crímenes de guerra como categoría especial de Derecho Internacional Penal. El Capítulo II aborda los elementos constitutivos de los crímenes de guerra. Para ello, define la naturaleza y alcance de los elementos de los crímenes en el marco del Estatuto de Roma y de la jurisprudencia de la CPI, así como las discusiones doctrinales relativas a su naturaleza vinculante. La investigación define, en primer lugar, los elementos materiales de los crímenes de guerra del Estatuto de Roma, relativos a los conflictos armados internacionales y no internacionales. En segundo lugar, se aborda el elemento de intencionalidad de los crímenes de guerra en el Derecho Internacional Penal y en el derecho penal colombiano. En tercer lugar se estudian los elementos contextuales de los crímenes de guerra, desarrollando la tipología actual de los conflictos armados, con una especial referencia a la existencia, naturaleza y características del conflicto armado colombiano a la luz de la jurisprudencia y la doctrina. El Capítulo III emprende el análisis de la responsabilidad internacional penal del individuo. Con este propósito, la investigación identifica los principios que rigen la responsabilidad internacional penal del individuo por crímenes de guerra y define el modelo de responsabilidad del Estatuto de Roma y del Derecho Penal colombiano. A continuación el Capítulo III presenta las teorías de la responsabilidad internacional B penal aplicadas por los tribunales ad hoc, de la CPI y de la jurisdicción penal colombiana y acomete el análisis de las formas de participación en los crímenes de guerra, como autoría directa, co-autoría o co-perpetración, autoría indirecta o mediata y co-autoría indirecta, así como las formas accesorias de participación. El Capítulo IV estudia la jurisdicción competente para perseguir y sancionar los crímenes de guerra en Colombia. De la misma manera, el estudio incluye los límites de la jurisdicción relativos a la imputación, al comportamiento de los órganos del Estado, a los medios disponibles y al tratamiento que reciben las víctimas. Finalmente, el Capítulo IV se aproxima a las modalidades de cooperación y complementariedad de la CPI, inspirándose en los desarrollos de la propia corporación en la materia. Las conclusiones son una síntesis de conceptos y hechos que se consideran probados a lo largo de la investigación, que sirven como punto de partida a una serie de sugerencias y propuestas con miras al fortalecimiento de las instituciones democráticas en Colombia en su tarea de prevenir, perseguir y sancionar los crímenes de guerra que ofenden profundamente la dignidad humana. / This thesis is dedicated to the study of war crimes, and under this category of International Criminal Law, seeks to confirm the terms of its enactment into the Colombian law. In this sense, it aims to establish the role of cooperation and complementarity of the International Criminal Court (ICC). Chapter I develops remote and recent history of the notion of war crimes. The historical study establishes the legal dimension and emphasis of the concept of war crimes as a special category of International Criminal Law. Chapter II examins the nature and scope of the elements of war crimes under the Rome Statute, the jurisprudence of the ICC, and the doctrinal discussions concerning their binding character. The research defines the material, mental, and contextual elements of war crimes. In doing so it develops the current typology of armed conflict with special reference to the existence, nature, and characteristics of the Colombian armed conflict in the way of the jurisprudence and doctrine. An analysis of international criminal responsibility of the individual is offerred in chapter III by identifying its governing principles. In addition to including an analysis of the forms of participation in war crimes, the chapter also presents the theories of international criminal responsibility applied by the ad hoc tribunals, the ICC, and the Colombian criminal jurisdiction. The jurisdiction to prosecute and punish war crimes in Colombia is closely studied in chapter IV. This chapter includes the limits of the internal jurisdiction and is closed by the modalities of cooperation and complementarity of the ICC, inspired by the developments of the cooperation itself in the matter. a The findings are a synthesis of concepts and facts substantiated through research, which serves as a starting point to a number of suggestions and proposals for strengthening democratic institutions in Colombia in their efforts to prevent, prosecute and punishing war crimes that deeply offend human dignity.

<p>The first part of this study evaluates the historical events that led to the referral of the DRC situation to the ICC. This includes the background of the conflict and the extent to which international crimes have been committed. Both regional and domestic attempts and initiatives to address the conflict are discussed, with specific reference to peace agreements and restorative justice mechanisms. The second part of the study deals with the prosecution of the perpetrators by the ICC. It examines the approach of the Pre- Trial Chamber to two legal issues, the principle of complementarity and modes of criminal participation as part of the ICC Statute. In this regard, the study makes a critical evaluation of two preliminary decisions confirming the charges against Lubanga, Katanga and Chui before the cases proceeded to the trial stage.</p>