Fresh water shortage and hot weather are common challenges in many countries of the world. In the other hand, the air conditioning systems which are used for indoor cooling cause peak electricity demand during high temperatures hours. This peak hour demand is very important since it is more expensive and mainly is supplied by fossil fuel power plants with lower efficiencies compare to base load fossil fuel or renewable owe plants. Moreover, these peak electricity load fossil fuel power plants cause higher green house gas emission and other environmental effects. So, all these show that any solution for these problems could make life better in those countries and all over the world.In this thesis, a new idea for a Power storage, Cooling storage, and Water production Combined Cycle (PCWCC) is introduced and reviewed. PCWCC is combination of two thermal cycles, Ice Thermal Energy Storage (ITES) and desalination by freezing cycle, which are merged together to make a total solution for fresh water shortage, required cooling, and high peak power demand. ITES is a well known technology for shifting the electricity demand of cooling systems from peak hours to off-peak hours and desalination by freezing is a less known desalination system which is based on the fact that the ice crystals are pure and by freezing raw water and melting resulted ice crystals, pure water will be produced. These two systems have some common processes and equations and this thesis shows that by combining them the resulted PCWCC could be more efficient than each of them. In this thesis, the thermodynamic equations and efficiencies of each PCWCC sub-systems are analyzed and the resulted data are used in finding thermodynamics of PCWCC itself. Also, by using reMIND software, which uses Cplex to find the best combinations of input/output and related processes, the cost of produced fresh water and cooling from PCWCC is compared with total cost of fresh water and cooling produced by each sub-systems of PCWCC in three sample cities all over the world, Kerman, Dubai, and Texas. These cities are chosen since they have similar ambient temperature trend with different electricity and fresh water tariff's. The results show that, the PCWCC is economical where there is a significant electricity price difference between ice charging and ice melting hours, off-peak and peak hours, of the day or when the fresh water price is high compare to electricity price. The results also show that how the revenue from fresh water could cover the used electricity cost and make some income as well.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / O principal objetivo da tese está relacionado ao tratamento de águas oleosas através da eletrofloculação utilizando corrente alternada de frequência variável, o qual procurou explorar as potencialidades desta técnica. Com a crescente demanda por petróleo e seus derivados, é cada vez maior a produção dessas águas residuárias que, antes de serem descartadas, precisam ser submetidas a tratamento que satisfaçam aos requisitos legais. O trabalho apresentado descreve o levantamento bibliográfico e os resultados dos ensaios realizados, empregando o tratamento de eletrofloculação com a finalidade de remover as substâncias consideradas poluentes presentes nestes efluentes. O processo de eletrofloculação foi testado tanto para o tratamento em corrente continua quanto em corrente alternada de frequência variável em efluentes sintéticos e reais de alta salinidade, contendo teores elevados de óleos e graxas, turbidez e cor. Eficiências de redução de 99% para óleos e graxas, cor e turbidez foram obtidos utilizando eletrodos de alumínio. O processo de eletrofloculação demonstrou-se bastante vantajoso em função da alta condutividade que permite o tratamento com menor consumo energético. A tecnologia de eletrofloculação com corrente alternada quando comparada com a tecnologia de corrente contínua se mostrou muito eficiente em relação a economia no desgaste de massa de eletrodos, o que, dependendo do tempo de aplicação da corrente elétrica nas mesmas condições de estudo, houve redução de mais da metade do consumo. / The main aim of the present work was to study the treatment of oil wastewaters using electroflocculation with AC and variable frequency and to explore the potentiality of the process. With the increasing demand for oil and its derivatives the production of oil wastewaters also increases. Before its final disposal, these undesirable wastewaters must undergo treatment to adjust its quality to legal requirements. The present work presents an extensive literature survey and the experimental results obtained can be deemed as excelent, as reduction efficiencies of about 99% of the main quality parameters, namely, oils and greases, turbidity and colour, were obtained. The process was carried out using both direct and variable frequency alternate currents in high salinity samples of both real and synthetic wastewater. containing high levels of oil and grease, turbidity and color. Reduction efficiencies of 99% for oils and greases, color and turbidity were obtained using aluminum electrodes. The process electroflocculation seem to be quite advantageous due to the the fact that high conductivity values result in considerably low energy consumption. Electroflocculation processes using AC , as compared with similar processes, proved to very efficient, mainly because of its potential economy in mass of electrodes, which, depending on the time of application of electric current in the same conditions of study, a reduction of more half the consumption was obtained.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-23T14:04:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Waldileia Pereira Leal.pdf: 3453316 bytes, checksum: 63c0a56552f4b09c97956f4c0d9f711c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-07-05 / O 2,4-D é o segundo herbicida mais utilizado no Brasil, podendo chegar à água de abastecimento público. Devido à limitação do tratamento convencional na remoção de microcontaminantes e a capacidade do carvão ativado em removê-los, este estudo investigou a aplicação de carvão ativado pulverizado (CAP) na remoção do 2,4-D por processos de adsorção associado ao tratamento convencional utilizando água bruta do Rio Santa Maria da Vitória em equipamentos de jartest. Os diagramas de coagulação foram construídos através de estudo de tratabilidade de água utilizando o sulfato de alumínio e o policloreto de alumínio como coagulantes. Foram realizados ensaios de adsorção com carvões derivados da casca de coco (CAP 1) e de pinnus (CAP 2) que foram caracterizados e avaliados na sua capacidade de remover o 2,4-D. A remoção de matéria orgânica natural também foi determinada pela medição de carbono orgânico dissolvido (COD) e absorvância UV 254 nm. Para a quantificação e detecção dos analitos, ácidos 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T e o 2,4-DCP, foi desenvolvida e validada uma metodologia analítica em cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (CLAE). Através dos dados de adsorção obtidos, o CAP 1 apresentou maior capacidade de remoção do 2,4-D e foi associado ao tratamento convencional, sendo adicionado quinze minutos antes, um minuto antes e um minuto após a adição do sulfato de alumínio. Os resultados indicaram que a adição do coagulante não influenciou na capacidade de adsorção do CAP 1 que apresentou-se eficiente na remoção do herbicida, atendendo ao padrão de potabilidade de água vigente / The 2,4-D is the second most widely used herbicide in Brazil, reaching the public water supply. Due to the limitation of conventional treatment in removing micro-contaminants and capacity of activated carbon to remove them, this study investigated the application of powdered activated carbon (PAC) in the removal of 2,4-D in adsorption process associated with conventional treatment using raw water from the Rio Santa Maria da Vitória in equipment jartest. The diagrams of coagulation were constructed through treatability study of water using aluminum sulfate and polyaluminum chloride as coagulants. Tests of adsorption with carbons derived from coconut shells (PAC 1) and pinus (PAC 2) were characterized and evaluated in its ability to remove 2,4-D. The removal of natural organic matter was also determined by measuring the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and UV absorbance at 254 nm. To detection and quantification of analytes, acids 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T and 2,4-DCP an analytical methodology for high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC/DAD) was developed and validated. Through the adsorption data, the PAC 1 showed greater capacity for removal of 2,4-D and was associated with conventional treatment, fifteen minutes prior, one minute prior to or one minute after the addition of the aluminum sulfate. The results indicated that the addition of coagulant had no effect on adsorption capacity of the PAC 1 which showed to be being effective for the removal of herbicide, given the drinking water quality standards force

Submitted by Celso Magalhaes (celsomagalhaes@ufrrj.br) on 2017-09-20T11:28:58Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2017 - Mateus Marques Bueno.pdf: 6490424 bytes, checksum: f696a97cede78e62f97260ed46c9a661 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-09-20T11:28:58Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2017 - Mateus Marques Bueno.pdf: 6490424 bytes, checksum: f696a97cede78e62f97260ed46c9a661 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-02-10 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient?fico e Tecnol?gico - CNPq / In the marine fluvial plains, present along the Brazilian coast, there are intrinsic interaction between the agents coordinated by sea actions and fluvial dynamics. These interactions offer quantity and quality of environmental services to their river basins. This study characterized the Basin of the Guandu System (BHSG) and its flat land in relation to the offer of ecosystem services. Subsequently, it prospected on the factors that determine the supply and management of services as environmental assets in microbasins, strongly anthropized by mineral activity. Geoprocessing information was used to spatialize areas with similar ecosystem services and a local monitoring system to evaluate and size environmental services. The BHSG is home to Sepetiba marine fluvial plain in 50.21% of its area, whose altitude is less than 40 m, forms of flat or smooth undulating relief. In it interact the environmental effects produced by the rocky massifs of the high parts and the oscillations of the seas in the low parts. The combination of the contemporary geomorphological processes of the basin's hydrogel zones with their environmental attributes allowed the identification of homogeneous vocations of environmental services in the areas of abstraction and water regulation. As well, to identify the water effects where there is synergy between the Guandu rectified channel, built at 64 years and reserve areas around the original river bad, which were sectioned. In these places, there was an increase in upstream and downstream water flow reserve, which can be exploited for management purposes through the payment of environmental services. In the anthropogenic basin located in a region where the reservoir effects of the plain are inexpressive, the design of the water collection and management strategies in the riverbed with infiltration induction zones, through infiltration tanks, functioned as sediment retainers by preventing the emission of 29,000 t in 4 years. In addition to guaranteeing the supply of the average demand of 90 m3d-1 of raw water in a sparsely populated region with rainfall irregularity, historically exploited by subsistence agriculture, located in the peri-urban region of the RMRJ and with a predominantly negative annual climatic water balance, evidencing its potential to produce water under unfavorable conditions. / Nas plan?cies fl?vio marinha, presente ao longo da costa brasileira, existem intera??o intr?nseca entre os agentes coordenados pelas a??es do mar e a din?mica fluvial. Estas interagem e oferece quantidade e qualidade de servi?os ambientais ?s suas bacias hidrogr?ficas. Este estudo caracterizou a Bacia Hidrogr?fica do Sistema Guandu (BHSG) e sua plan?cie em rela??o a oferta de servi?os ecossist?micos. Posteriormente, prospectou sobre os fatores que determinam a oferta e manejo de servi?os como ativos ambientais em microbacias, fortemente antropizada por atividade mineral. Foram utilizadas informa??es de geoprocessamento para espacializar ?reas com servi?os ecossist?micos similares e sistema de monitoramento local para avaliar e dimensionar os servi?os ambientais. A BHSG abriga a plan?cie fl?vio marinha de Sepetiba em 50,21% de sua ?rea, cuja altitude ? inferior a 40 m, apresenta-se formas de relevo plano ou suave ondulado. Nela interagem os efeitos ambientais produzidos pelos maci?os rochosos das partes altas e as oscila??es dos mares nas partes baixas. A combina??o dos processos geomorfol?gicos contempor?neos das zonas hidrogen?ticas da bacia com seus atributos ambientais permitiu identificar voca??es homog?neas de presta??o de servi?os ambientais nas ?reas de capta??o e regula??o h?drica. Assim como, identificar os efeitos h?dricos onde h? sinergia entre o canal retificado do Guandu, constru?do a 64 anos e ?reas de reserva??o no entorno dos talvegues originais, que foram seccionados. Nestes locais, observou-se aumento da reserva??o dos fluxos h?dricos ? montante e diminui??o a jusante, que podem ser explorados para fins de manejo via pagamento de servi?os ambientais. Na bacia antropizada situado em regi?o onde os efeitos de reserva??o da plan?cie ? inexpressivo, o desenho das estrat?gias de coleta e administra??o h?drica nos talvegues com zonas de indu??o de infiltra??o, por meio de tanques de infiltra??es, funcionaram como retentores de sedimentos ao impedir a emiss?o de 29.000 t em 4 anos. Al?m de garantir o abastecimento da demanda m?dia de 90 m3d-1 de ?gua bruta em regi?o de escassa e com irregularidade de chuvas, explorada historicamente por agricultura de subsist?ncia, situada em regi?o periurbana da RMRJ e com balan?o h?drico climatol?gico anual predominantemente negativo no tempo, evidenciando o seu potencial de produ??o de ?gua em condi??es desfavor?veis

Water quality in the Vaalharts region in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa, decreased over the past few years and there was a need for the microbiological and physico-chemical assessment. This problem was identified through discussions with Vaalharts Water (Vaalharts Water User Association) in 2010 when the issue of the impact of deteriorating water quality on drinking water production was raised. It was thus important to investigate concerns of the water users association pertaining to water quality issues. The aim of this study was to assess the physico-chemical and microbiological quality of household water in the Vaalharts irrigation scheme. The main residential areas were Hartswater, Pampierstad, Jan Kempdorp and Warrenton. Faecal coliforms were detected in the raw water of all the drinking water distribution systems during 2011 and 2012. No faecal coliforms were detected in the household water during 2011. This was a very positive result, because not only did the household water comply with the SANS 241 (2011) standard (0 CFU/100ml), but the purification processes were successful by removing all the E. coli’s from the raw water. However, during March 2012 faecal coliforms were detected in the household water of Jan Kempdorp (191CFU/100ml). This could be due to point pollution and possible breakage of faecal coliforms in the distribution system. Low amounts of total coliforms were detected in the raw water of some of the drinking water distribution systems. This could be due to high amounts of other colonies (pink and purple) growing on the m-Endo agar which suppress the growth of the metallic green sheen (total coliform) colonies. The total coliform numbers complied with the SANS 241 (2011) standard of ≤10 CFU/100ml at most of the distribution systems, except for Hartswater during July 2011 (14CFU/100ml) and Warrenton during March 2012 (256 CFU/100ml). Heterotrophic plate count bacteria were very high in the household water of some of the distribution systems during 2011 and 2012 which exceeded the SANS 241 (2011) standard of ≤1000 CFU/ml. A large number of pigmented (yellow, orange, pink) and non-pigmented (white) colonies were isolated on R2A agar. This can be an indication of some failure in treatment processes. Other microbiological parameters that were tested such as faceal streptococci, Clostridia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and fungi did not indicate any danger, but there were high levels of total anaerobic bacteria in the raw water during 2011 and 2012. A high level of anaerobic bacteria was detected in the household water of Hartswater during July 2011. Clostridia were also present in the household water of some of the distribution systems during 2011 and 2012. Sequencing results of the mdh, lacZ and uidA genes indicated that one of the isolates was identified as Enterobacter cloacae and the other isolates were E. coli. Four of the isolates were identified as Escherichia coli O104:H4. This is a pathogenic strain and raised concern. The physicochemical parameters that were measured complied with the SANS 241 (2011) standards during 2011 and 2012, but some of the parameters increased gradually from 2011 to 2012. Statistical analysis indicated that physico-chemical parameters had an influence on microbiological parameters and that deteriorating raw water may have an impact on drinking water quality. Another concern currently is that there is no SANS 241 (2011) for faecal streptococci, Clostridia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, fungi and anaerobic bacteria. These are all opportunistic pathogenic bacteria and consuming water with high levels of these bacteria may cause health problems. This study indicated good progress in the treatment processes of the distribution systems over the two years. This may be due to the feedback given to Vaalharts Water during this study regarding the water quality of the residential areas. The physico-chemical and microbiological results of the present study indicated possible biofilm formation in the distribution systems. This may have impacts on the drinking water quality of the distribution systems. It was also evident that deteriorating raw water sources may have an impact on drinking water production. / Thesis (MSc (Environmental Sciences))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

Water quality in the Vaalharts region in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa, decreased over the past few years and there was a need for the microbiological and physico-chemical assessment. This problem was identified through discussions with Vaalharts Water (Vaalharts Water User Association) in 2010 when the issue of the impact of deteriorating water quality on drinking water production was raised. It was thus important to investigate concerns of the water users association pertaining to water quality issues. The aim of this study was to assess the physico-chemical and microbiological quality of household water in the Vaalharts irrigation scheme. The main residential areas were Hartswater, Pampierstad, Jan Kempdorp and Warrenton. Faecal coliforms were detected in the raw water of all the drinking water distribution systems during 2011 and 2012. No faecal coliforms were detected in the household water during 2011. This was a very positive result, because not only did the household water comply with the SANS 241 (2011) standard (0 CFU/100ml), but the purification processes were successful by removing all the E. coli’s from the raw water. However, during March 2012 faecal coliforms were detected in the household water of Jan Kempdorp (191CFU/100ml). This could be due to point pollution and possible breakage of faecal coliforms in the distribution system. Low amounts of total coliforms were detected in the raw water of some of the drinking water distribution systems. This could be due to high amounts of other colonies (pink and purple) growing on the m-Endo agar which suppress the growth of the metallic green sheen (total coliform) colonies. The total coliform numbers complied with the SANS 241 (2011) standard of ≤10 CFU/100ml at most of the distribution systems, except for Hartswater during July 2011 (14CFU/100ml) and Warrenton during March 2012 (256 CFU/100ml). Heterotrophic plate count bacteria were very high in the household water of some of the distribution systems during 2011 and 2012 which exceeded the SANS 241 (2011) standard of ≤1000 CFU/ml. A large number of pigmented (yellow, orange, pink) and non-pigmented (white) colonies were isolated on R2A agar. This can be an indication of some failure in treatment processes. Other microbiological parameters that were tested such as faceal streptococci, Clostridia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and fungi did not indicate any danger, but there were high levels of total anaerobic bacteria in the raw water during 2011 and 2012. A high level of anaerobic bacteria was detected in the household water of Hartswater during July 2011. Clostridia were also present in the household water of some of the distribution systems during 2011 and 2012. Sequencing results of the mdh, lacZ and uidA genes indicated that one of the isolates was identified as Enterobacter cloacae and the other isolates were E. coli. Four of the isolates were identified as Escherichia coli O104:H4. This is a pathogenic strain and raised concern. The physicochemical parameters that were measured complied with the SANS 241 (2011) standards during 2011 and 2012, but some of the parameters increased gradually from 2011 to 2012. Statistical analysis indicated that physico-chemical parameters had an influence on microbiological parameters and that deteriorating raw water may have an impact on drinking water quality. Another concern currently is that there is no SANS 241 (2011) for faecal streptococci, Clostridia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, fungi and anaerobic bacteria. These are all opportunistic pathogenic bacteria and consuming water with high levels of these bacteria may cause health problems. This study indicated good progress in the treatment processes of the distribution systems over the two years. This may be due to the feedback given to Vaalharts Water during this study regarding the water quality of the residential areas. The physico-chemical and microbiological results of the present study indicated possible biofilm formation in the distribution systems. This may have impacts on the drinking water quality of the distribution systems. It was also evident that deteriorating raw water sources may have an impact on drinking water production. / Thesis (MSc (Environmental Sciences))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

La filtration membranaire est une technique séparative utilisée fréquemment comme procédé permettant de retenir et d'extraire les microorganismes présents dans un fluide. Le mécanisme de sélectivité classiquement admis dans ce procédé est l'exclusion par la taille. Cependant, nos travaux ont permis de mettre en évidence un transfert de microorganismes à travers la structure poreuse des membranes au cours d'opérations de filtration, alors que les dimensions des cellules vivantes en suspension sont supérieures au diamètre moyen des pores de la membrane, entrainant une diminution du taux de récolte des microorganismes et une contamination de la phase perméat. Les caractéristiques morphologiques et nanomécaniques des cellules bactériennes sélectionnées pour nos travaux ont été observées et les propriétés du matériau membranaire modèle ont été mesurées. Grâce à ces informations, le transfert des bactéries aux premiers instants d'une filtration frontale a pu être évalué et le rôle de différents paramètres opératoires appliqués (type de souche bactérienne, composition physico-chimique de fluide filtré, PTM) a pu être commenté. Ainsi, nos résultats ont permis de préciser les mécanismes de sélectivités appliqués aux bactéries à Gram positif et à Gram négatif qui différent du fait des caractéristiques structurales de la paroi bactérienne (épaisseur et élasticité de la couche de peptidoglycane). Enfin, l'évolution du transfert de cellules vers la phase perméat a également été suivie et la mise en place du dépôt bactérien colmatant à la surface de la membrane a été observée. Le rôle de ce dépôt structuré sur les variations de débit et de transfert a donc pu être mis en évidence pour les trois modèles bactériens sélectionnés. Nos résultats ont permis de définir des conditions critiques (physiques, chimiques et biologiques) pour lesquelles le transfert de cellules bactériennes par déformation est amplifié au cours d'une filtration membranaire frontale. / Membrane filtration is a separation technique commonly used as a method for removing and extracting microorganisms present in a fluid. The selectivity mechanism is size exclusion. However, our work has highlighted transfer of microorganisms through the porous membrane structure during filtration operations, even if the size of the living cell in suspension is greater than the average pore size of the membrane, resulting in lowering of the accumulation rate of the microorganisms and thus contamination of the permeate phase. Morphological and nanomechanical characterization of selected bacteria cells used for our work were performed and the properties of the model membrane were analyzed. With this information, the transfer of bacteria dunring the first moments of the dead-end filtration has been evaluated and the role of operating parameters (type of bacteria strains, physicochemical composition of filtered fluid, TMP) has been studied. Thus, our results have clarified the selectivity mechanisms applied to Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria strains because of different structural characteristics of the bacterial cell wall (thickness and elasticity of the peptidoglycan layer). Finally, evolution of cells transfer to the permeate phase has also been followed, and the bacterial deposit clogging the membrane was observed. The role of the structured deposit on the variations in flow and transfer has been demonstrated for the three selected bacterial models. Our results have defined critical conditions (physical, chemical and biological) where the transfer of bacterial cells is amplified by deformation during a frontal membrane filtration.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / O principal objetivo da tese está relacionado ao tratamento de águas oleosas através da eletrofloculação utilizando corrente alternada de frequência variável, o qual procurou explorar as potencialidades desta técnica. Com a crescente demanda por petróleo e seus derivados, é cada vez maior a produção dessas águas residuárias que, antes de serem descartadas, precisam ser submetidas a tratamento que satisfaçam aos requisitos legais. O trabalho apresentado descreve o levantamento bibliográfico e os resultados dos ensaios realizados, empregando o tratamento de eletrofloculação com a finalidade de remover as substâncias consideradas poluentes presentes nestes efluentes. O processo de eletrofloculação foi testado tanto para o tratamento em corrente continua quanto em corrente alternada de frequência variável em efluentes sintéticos e reais de alta salinidade, contendo teores elevados de óleos e graxas, turbidez e cor. Eficiências de redução de 99% para óleos e graxas, cor e turbidez foram obtidos utilizando eletrodos de alumínio. O processo de eletrofloculação demonstrou-se bastante vantajoso em função da alta condutividade que permite o tratamento com menor consumo energético. A tecnologia de eletrofloculação com corrente alternada quando comparada com a tecnologia de corrente contínua se mostrou muito eficiente em relação a economia no desgaste de massa de eletrodos, o que, dependendo do tempo de aplicação da corrente elétrica nas mesmas condições de estudo, houve redução de mais da metade do consumo. / The main aim of the present work was to study the treatment of oil wastewaters using electroflocculation with AC and variable frequency and to explore the potentiality of the process. With the increasing demand for oil and its derivatives the production of oil wastewaters also increases. Before its final disposal, these undesirable wastewaters must undergo treatment to adjust its quality to legal requirements. The present work presents an extensive literature survey and the experimental results obtained can be deemed as excelent, as reduction efficiencies of about 99% of the main quality parameters, namely, oils and greases, turbidity and colour, were obtained. The process was carried out using both direct and variable frequency alternate currents in high salinity samples of both real and synthetic wastewater. containing high levels of oil and grease, turbidity and color. Reduction efficiencies of 99% for oils and greases, color and turbidity were obtained using aluminum electrodes. The process electroflocculation seem to be quite advantageous due to the the fact that high conductivity values result in considerably low energy consumption. Electroflocculation processes using AC , as compared with similar processes, proved to very efficient, mainly because of its potential economy in mass of electrodes, which, depending on the time of application of electric current in the same conditions of study, a reduction of more half the consumption was obtained.

Poly- och perfluorerade alkylsubstanser (PFAS) är syntetiskt tillverkade kemikalier som omfattar cirka 4700 individuella ämnen. PFAS har använts sedan 1950-talet i ett antal applikationer som brandsläckningsskum, impregneringsmedel samt textilier, på grund av sina unika egenskaper att vara både vattenlöslig (hydrofila) och vattenavstötande (hydrofoba). Dessa egenskaper gör att göra att PFAS kan transporteras långa vägar. Dessutom är ämnets kol-fluorbindning en av det starkaste kemiska bindningar som gör dem mycket stabila och därför svårnedbrytbara i miljön. Många PFAS misstänkts vara skadliga och kan ansamlas i både djur och människor. Ett antal PFAS har visat sig ge negativa effekter på reproduktion, immunsystem, sköldkörtelhormoner och levern vid djurförsök. Vissa tas lättare upp av kroppen men det är oklart vilken påverkan exakt alla 4700 PFAS-ämnen har. Dessa potentiellt skadliga föroreningar upptäcks på flera ställen i Sverige och har redan resulterat i allvarliga problem för dricksvattenförsörjningen. Dagens reningsmetoder avlägsnar inte PFAS och i kombination med toxiska egenskaper och hög bioackumuleringspotential kan det bli farligt för både människor och miljö. Därför regleras summan av 11 PFAS-ämnen (summa-11) med en åtgärdsgräns på 90 ng/L för vattenverk i Sverige. Vissa vattenverk har tvingats sättas ur bruk på grund av för höga PFAS-koncentrationer i producerat dricksvatten. Kunskapen om källor till PFAS är fortfarande låg men utredning av flera potentiella källor pågår.  I detta arbete har ett antal PFAS-ämnen analyserats uppströms Glan, den sjö i Norrköping kommun som försörjer över 90 % av invånarna med dricksvatten. Syftet är att kartlägga och karaktärisera PFAS i Norrköpings råvattentäkt Glan med tillflöden för att få en ökad förståelse för potentiell påverkan på dricksvattenproduktion. Kartläggningen skedde genom provtagningar uppströms Borgs råvattenintag. Det samlades också in data från andra aktörer längre uppströms i vattensystemet längs Motala Ström, Stångån samt även i Glan. Provtagning skedde också vid Bråvalla som är ett sedan tidigare välkänt förorenat område i direkt anslutning till Glan. All data analyserades sedan med ett Kruskal-Wallis test. Studien visar 1) av 21 analyserade PFAS-ämnen detekterades PFHxS, PFOS, PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA och PFBA i flest provpunkter 2) Både PFOS och PFOA hade högst koncentration i Motala ström av de tillflöden till Glan som undersökts 3) PFBA, visade högst koncentration i andra tillflöden än Motala Ström, Hällestaån, Ysundaviken, till Glan med okänd källa 4) Av alla inflöden till Glan uppmättes högst halter av summa-11 i Motala ström som också utgör det största tillflödet till Glan 5) Våtmarken vid Bråvalla är en potentiell PFAS-källa till Glan då koncentrationen i dessa provpunkter är mycket höga i jämförelse med övriga provpunkter. Däremot indikerar inte resultaten på att Bråvalla är en källa i dagsläget men kan bidra till framtida komplikationer för Borgs råvattentäkt pga. klimatförändringar. / Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetically manufactured chemicals comprising about 4700 individual substances. PFAS has been used since the 1950s in a number of applications such as firefighting foam, impregnating agents and textiles, due to its unique properties of being both water-soluble (hydrophilic) and water-repellent (hydrophobic). These properties allow PFAS to be transported long distances. In addition, the substance's carbon-fluorine bond is one of the strongest chemical bonds that makes them very stable and therefore difficult to degrade in the environment. Many PFASs are suspected to be harmful and can accumulate in both animals and humans. A number of PFASs have been shown to have adverse effects on reproduction, immune systems, thyroid hormones and the liver in animal experiments. Some are more easily absorbed by the body, but it is unclear what effect exactly all 4700 PFAS substances have. These potentially harmful pollutants are discovered in several places in Sweden and have already resulted in serious problems for the drinking water supply. Today's purification methods do not remove PFAS and in combination with toxic properties and high bioaccumulation potential, it can be dangerous for both humans and the environment. Therefore, the sum of 11 PFAS substances (summa-11) is regulated with a limit value of 90 ng/L for waterworks in Sweden. Some waterworks have been forced out of service due to too high PFAS concentrations in produced drinking water. Knowledge of sources for PFAS is still low, but investigation of several potential sources is ongoing. In this study, a number of PFAS substances have been analyzed upstream of Glan, the lake in Norrköping municipality that supplies more than 90% of the inhabitants with drinking water. The aim is to map and characterize PFAS in Norrköping's water catchment Glan with inflows to gain an increased understanding of the potential impact on drinking water production. The mapping took place through sampling upstream of Borg's raw water intake. Data were also collected from other actors further upstream in the water system along Motala Ström, Stångån and also in Glan. Sampling also took place at Bråvalla, which is a previously well-known polluted area in direct connection to Glan. All data were then analyzed with a Kruskal-Wallis test. The study shows 1) of 22 analyzed PFAS substances, PFHxS, PFOS, PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA and PFBA were detected in most test points 2) Both PFOS and PFOA had the highest concentration in Motala stream of all the inflows examined to Glan 3) PFBA showed the highest concentration in inflows other than Motala stream, Hällestaån, Ysundaviken, to Glan with unknown source 4) Of all inflows to Glan, the highest levels of summa-11 were measured in Motala stream which also constitutes the largest inflow to Glan 5) The wetland at Bråvalla is a potential PFAS source of Glan as the concentration in these test points is very high compared to other test points. However, the results do not indicate that Bråvalla is a source at present, but may contribute to future complications for Borg's raw water source due to climate change.

Norrvatten är en av Sveriges största dricksvattenproducenter. Med ett ökande behov av en större produktionskapacitet och nya regleringar, planerar dem att förbättra sin reningsprocess. En aspekt som kräver omfattande undersökning är val av reningsmetod för att nå den nya gränsen från Livsmedelsverket för fyra PFAS kemikalier. PFAS är en grupp kemikalier som är mänskligt producerade sedan 1950-talet, vilka är persistenta och farliga för människors hälsa. Deras stabilitet i miljön leder till att de ackumulerar i naturen och hamnar i mat och dricksvatten. För att uppnå de nya regleringarna måste Norrvatten minska sin PFAS4 koncentration från cirka 5.7 ng/L till 4 ng/L. PFAS-separationen är planerad att genomföras via antingen aktivt kol eller en kombination där flotation även implementeras. Aktivt kol har en bevisad möjlighet att separera och destruera PFAS4, men nyligen har indikationer på en potential hos flotation uppenbarats. Dock är forskningen kring dess effektivitet begränsad vilket medför ett behov av att utvärdera dess användbarhet. Denna rapport syftar till att förse Norrvatten med ett underlag på effektiviteten och gynnsamheten med flotation inför beslutet att implementera flotation. Av den anledningen undersöktes separationseffektiviteten som uppnås i en befintlig flotationsbassäng i Norrvattens vattenverk. Genom att mäta PFAS4 koncentrationen i inflödet, utflödet och slammet kunde en borttagningseffektivitet på 19-38% bestämmas för olika belastningar. Slamkoncentrationen mättes till ungefär 200-700 ng/L. Felkällor kunde identifieras i mätningarna eftersom massbalansen inte stämde överens trots att mätosäkerheten från analysen adderades. Dessutom gjordes en omanalys av två prover som skilde sig från det förväntade resultatet, vilket gav avsevärda skillnader i resultatet. Trots att några felkällor kunde identifieras kunde inte en fullständig förklaring till avvikelserna fastställas. Trots detta kunde slutsatser dras att den uppmätta separationseffektiviteten och slamkoncentrationen kunde förse ett korrekt intervall. Dessutom indikerade resultaten att flotation inte kan appliceras enskilt för att nå koncentrationsmålet utan bör kombineras med kompletterande kolfilter f ̈or att nå gränsvärdet. Flotation ger upphov till en mer koncentrerad ström av PFAS som kräver behandling för att eliminera kemikalierna från miljöns kretslopp. Flera potentiella behandlingsmetoder identifierades för hur slammet kan hanteras. Jämförelsen inkluderade aktivt kolfilter, jonbytare, membran, oxidationsprocesser, sonolys, förbränning, deponi, jordrening, flotation, skumfraktionering, behandling på reningsverk och återanvändning för jordförbättring. Metoderna jämfördes utifrån bevisad robusthet, kostnad och applicerbarhet. Ett möjligt slamhanteringsalternativ visade sig vara ett sekundärt steg med flotation, förbränning av det uppkoncentrerade slammet och behandling av permeatet med jonbytare. Med den föreslagna slamhanteringen kunde implementering av flotation utvärderas baserat på maximal PFAS destruktion, ekonomi, koldioxidutsläpp och energiförbrukning. Det visade sig att energiförbrukningen är större för processen som inkluderar flotation men koldioxidutsläppen är mindre. Dock är det möjligt att avgränsningarna för koldioxid kan ha gynnat flotationsprocessen eftersom utsläpp från reaktivering av kolfilter inkluderades men inte utsläpp från förbränning eller energiproduktion. PFAS destruktionen blev ungefär 1-2% större för processen med exklusivt kolfilter eftersom flotationsprocessen innehåller ytterligare en ström som släpper ut PFAS efter behandling med jonbytare. Det mest ekonomiska alternativet visade sig bero på koncentrationsgränsen där implementering av flotation var dyrare för en PFAS4 koncentration på 4 ng/L i dricksvattnet, men billigare vid en gräns på 3 ng/L. Slutligen upptäcktes det att volymen av sekundärt slam som beräknades att skickas till förbränning har en stor påverkan på driftkostnaderna. Därför bör optimeringar genomföras för att minimera den sekundära slamvolymen om flotation implementeras. / Norrvatten is one of the largest drinking water producers in Sweden. With the need to increase their production capacity and new regulations, they are planning to improve their treatment process. One aspect that requires extensive investigation, is the treatment approach to reach the new limit from the Swedish Food Agency of four PFAS chemicals. PFAS is a group of chemicals that have been humanely produced since the 1950s, which are persistent and hazardous to human health. Their environmental stability causes them to accumulate in nature and ends up in foods and drinking water. To fulfill the new regulations, Norrvatten has to decrease the PFAS4 concentration in their drinking water from approximately 5.7 ng/L to 4 ng/L. The removal is planned to be achieved through either activated carbon filters or a combination where dissolved air flotation is included. Activated carbon has a proven separation and destruction possibility for PFAS4 but recently, DAF has appeared to be a promising alternative. However, there is limited research on its efficiency, which establishes a need for investigations on the potential of DAF for PFAS removal. To navigate Norrvatten through the decision between exclusively applying GAC filters or implementing a combination with DAF, this thesis intends to provide a basis of its efficiency and favorability. Therefore, this thesis investigated the removal efficiency that was obtained in one existing DAF basin in Norrvattens waterworks. By measuring the PFAS4 concentration in the inlet, outlet, and sludge flow, a removal efficiency of 19-38% was acquired for different flow levels. In addition, the sludge concentration was measured to approximately 200-700 ng/L in the water phase. Presence of sources of errors could be identified in the measurements as the mass balance did not add up despite the addition of the measurement uncertainty in the analysis. Also, two samples were analyzed twice as the results differed from the expected results, which provided significant variations. Although some sources of error were identified, a full explanation for the differing results could not be disclosed. However, through some consistency, it was possible to conclude that the removal efficiency and sludge concentration could provide an accurate interval to illustrate the reality. In addition, the results indicate that DAF cannot be applied alone to reach the concentration goal, but has to be combined with additional GAC filters to reach the target. DAF provides a separation of PFAS into a sludge stream that requires treatment to remove the chemicals from the environmental cycle. To investigate how the sludge could be managed, several treatment methods were identified. The comparison included GAC, AIX, membranes, oxidation processes, sonolysis, incineration, landfill, soil cleaning, DAF, foam fractionation, treatment at a wastewater facility, and reuse for soil improvement. The methods were compared based on proven robustness, cost, and applicability. It was concluded that a viable alternative was to transfer the sludge to a second stage of DAF, incinerate the concentrated sludge, and treat the permeate with AIX. From the sludge management proposal, the implementation of DAF was analyzed based on maximum PFAS destruction, economics, carbon emissions, and energy requirements. It was found that the energy requirement was larger for the process including DAF but the carbon emissions are smaller. However, the delimitations on the carbon emissions may have been in favor of the DAF process as the GAC reactivation emissions are included but emissions due to incineration or energy production are excluded. The PFAS destruction was approximately 1-2% larger for the process that excluded DAF as an additional stream containing PFAS would be released into the environment after AIX, which is not present when only GAC is implemented. The economic out-come depended on the concentration limit, where implementation of DAF was more expensive for a treatment target of 4 ng/L in the drinking water and more economical for 3 ng/L. Lastly, it was found that the volume of the concentrated sludge that would be sent for incineration had a large impact on the operational cost. Therefore, if DAF is implemented optimizations are of relevance to minimize the volume of that stream.