While the increasing importance of water security has been widely recognised, little is known about why and when water is likely to become the target of rebel groups in civil war. This study aims to contribute to this knowledge gap and asks the question: Why do non-state actors sometimes weaponise water? Based on bargaining theory and insights from terrorism literature, this study contends that military necessity and political costs constitute the dilemma that a rebel group faces in deciding whether or not to weaponise water. Hence, the more a rebel group is faced with a need to pressure the government, the more likely the rebel group is to target water systems when the political costs are low. Through a qualitative case study involving process tracing and structured focused comparison, this thesis explores the suggested hypothesis for the case of the FARC in the Colombian conflict by comparing two periods of peace negotiations during 1991-1992 and 1998-2002. The findings suggest that political costs are a critical factor while military necessity seems of less importance in the decision to weaponise or not to weaponise. Future research is warranted and this study suggests several directions.

This thesis identifies the potential threats and impacts posed by climate change on the relationship between water availability and the Polish energy transformation sector. In doing so, the objective is to uncover and assess how vulnerable these components are to climate change. Poland provides an interesting case in a European context as the country’s energy sector is largely fueled by hard coal, and its established thermal power plant fleet requires large volumes of water at particular temperatures to operate at full capacity (Kosowski et al. 2019). Climate change is predicted to cause variations in temperature and precipitation which is likely to affect water availability (Schaeffer et al. 2012). This is set to place further strain on the relationship betweenwater and thermal power plant operation. In addition, Poland has some of the smallest freshwater resources available per capita in the European Union and the country has already witnessed an increase in droughts and heatwaves which have had negative impacts on electricity generation (Manowska & Rybak 2018; Olszewski2015). The concern for Poland then is that climate change threatens the energy transformation sectors’ ability to provide access to electricity by continuing to affect water availability. To investigate this, the study conducted a vulnerability assessment that aimed to identify climate change exposure through the analysis of different climate models. A content analysis of relevant literature was used to identify potential climate change threats. To place the assessment in the Polish context, a case study was conducted on 14 hard coal thermal power plants located throughout the country. The data gathered from the case study was then evaluated and discussed in relation to the conceptual framework. The results found that climate change is indeed causing higher airtemperatures which is likely to cause higher water temperatures as well as more extreme weather events. These trends are expected to continue well beyond 2050. Regarding water availability, it was more challenging to identify a significant change in precipitation trends but periods of intense rainfall and increases in mean watertemperatures were observed. The thesis concluded that it is difficult to predict the exact degree of vulnerability of water availability and thermoelectric power operation. It does however recognize that there is a clear relationship between water availability and the functioning of thermal power plants. Therefore, it can be said that climate change will, to a certain extent, expose the two components to further vulnerabilities. Yet, further in-depth research is required to improve the reliability of the results.

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A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, 2019 / Water is a key element linked to challenges such as food security, economic development, energy generation and climate change. South Africa experienced its driest year on record in 2015, together with one of the largest cities, Cape Town, almost running out of water in 2018. The likelihood of increased drought in the future coupled to climate risks makes it imperative to attend to water security concerns within the country. The business sector needs to pay more attention to water issues given its reliance on water for operation. This study explores how South African companies that are dependent on water respond to water security concerns linked to increased demand and variability. Focusing on the potential of the CDP Water reporting process to promote improved water stewardship practices. A mixed methods approach is used including a detailed investigation of CDP Water report data and interviews. Companies are unique in their responses, their perception of water risk hence determines their responses to the risk. Many companies showed misalignments between their company strategy, governance and practice in water decision making that further calls into question their water stewardship in addressing water security concerns. Although water stewardship is highlighted as an opportunity for various companies, engagement in practices that promote stewardship is low. In the pursuit of water stewardship practices and improved water management, context becomes key. By companies conducting comprehensive river basin assessments, it assists in addressing and engaging water risks in a local context. Beyond CDP reports and interviews, an underlying outcome has emerged that calls for effective sustainability/ environmental strategic planning in environmental departments within companies. Communication becomes an essential tool even though creating a business case around risk is not unique to water. An emphasis is then needed at Board level on effective leadership within a company to transform the way they view their water related risks and turn them into opportunities. To bring these findings together, archetypes were created based on company ‘water stewardship readiness.’ The archetypes encompassed the likelihood of companies engaging in water stewardship practices as this is seen as one of the best ways forward for business to assist in securing water in the country. The notion of a water champion to tackle water related risks and lead opportunities brings to light the value of education and creating individuals, regardless of their field of interest, with the understanding and knowledge that resources such as water are limited. Environmental issues should be embedded within these individuals for appropriate decision making given the current state and future projections of not only water, but environmental concerns going forward. / TL (2020)

Global urbanization and climate change impacts have exacerbated the urban water crisis. Nature-based solutions (NbS) are promoted globally as ‘just’ and equitable strategies to build sustainable and resilient cities for environmental risks and societal challenges. However, there is still a gap in synchronizing socio-spatial perspectives to understand the cumulative impacts of environmental risks and evolve strategies accordingly. It is also envisaged that future urbanization will be led by small and medium-sized cities from Global South which are more vulnerable due to limited infrastructure, economic and institutional capacity, yet they offer easier management and better stakeholder coordination to integrate resilient strategies. This study attempts to evolve nature-based solutions for urban water security in the fast-emerging medium-sized city of Dehradun in India while bringing socio-spatial perspectives to examine the risks. The evolving research paradigm in urban water security and NbS point towards community-oriented scholarship to promote inclusive urbanism. The research was designed to empirically embed socio-spatial perspective in resilience framework through external and internal biophysical and social factors of hydrometeorological risks, built-environment, socio-economic demographics, perceptions, attitudes participation and representation for these risks. The study employed a multi-level socio-spatial exploratory and explanatory methodology, examining integrated spatial patterns of drought and flooding risks at city level to generate hotspots. It gathered social perspectives on the risks in a critical hotspot and also recorded the preferences for NbS through a semi-structured questionnaire from 452 respondents at neighbourhood-level. The parameters helped identify the key socio-spatial determinants for urban water security to contextualize NbS. Household income, education, and size; dwelling unit plot size and structure were the critical internal socio-spatial determinants for urban water security. Results show very little percentage of participation and representation in the study area, yet, the role of participatory process was a crucial external social factor in determining urban water security. Suitable strategies were considered based on identified socio-spatial determinants, NbS preferences and participation interest of the respondents. The preferences for various types of NbS were collated with their social, environmental, and economic benefits as well as spatial scale of implementation. A close synergy between the socio-economic demography and the built-environment was observed. This influences the cost and scale of NbS which subsequently determine the prospects of benefits. Effective participation and representation can enhance water security but its absence can adversely impact the livelihood, health or property of different groups even within one community which can lead to inequity and injustice. From the overall results it can be inferred that small-scale NbS had better synergies with the social determinants as compared to large-scale solutions. Hence, to maximize the benefits with equitable and ‘just’ measures, small-scale NbS need to be upscaled by replication. This also offers a unique opportunity for emerging cities which can embed them locally and replicate them in new neighbourhoods as the cities grows. Since these cities often have a strong sense of local identity, engagement with the community and enabling actors is also crucial for the successful contextualization of NbS. Thus, socio-spatial perspective becomes decisive for the multiple benefits sought from NbS while playing a significant role in equitable social inclusion to achieve urban water security.:1 Introduction 1.1 Global Urbanization Prospects 1.2 Sustainable Development Goals & the New Urban Agenda-III 1.3 The Growing Urban Water Crisis 1.4 Research Rationale 1.5 Structure of the Dissertation 2 Theoretical Background 2.1 Inclusive Urbanism 2.1.1 What is Inclusive Urbanism? Why is it needed? 2.1.2 Three dimensions for inclusion 2.1.3 Equity, Justice and Participation 2.2 Urban Water Security: Evolving Definitions & Parameters 2.3 Nature-based Solutions 2.3.1 Definitions and Implications 2.3.2 NbS Environmental, Social, Economic and Spatial Aspects 2.4 Inclusive Urbanism for Urban Water Security & NbS in Socio-spatial Perspective 3 State-of-the-art Literature Review 3.1 Literature Search and Analysis Criteria 3.2 Codes and Coding 3.3 Emergent Themes and Trends 3.4 Evidences of NbS for Urban Water Flooding & Drought 3.5 Evidences on Scale of Implementation of NbS 3.6 Evidences of NbS for Social, Environmental and Economic Aspects 3.7 Methodological Evidences for Social Inclusion in NbS 3.8 Gaps and Opportunities: Formulation of Research Questions 4 Research Design 4.1 Conceptual Framework 4.1.1 The Lens of Resilience 4.1.2 Enabling Social Inclusion in Urban Resilience 4.2 Operationalizing the Conceptual Framework Epistemological and Ontological Considerations 4.3 Methodological and Analytical Framework 4.3.1 Research Objectives 4.3.2 Case Study Selection 4.3.3 Spatial Assessment - Parameters, Methods & Tools 4.3.4 Social Assessment - Parameters, Methods & Tools 4.4 Scope and Limitations of the Study 5 Spatial Perspectives on Urban Water Security 5.1 Case Study Profile: Dehradun City 5.2 Demographics and Urbanization Trends 5.3 Climate and Seasonal Trends 5.4 LPA Precipitation Trends and Spatial Pattern 5.5 Groundwater Trends and Spatial Pattern 5.6 Urban Flooding Spatial Pattern 5.7 Study Area Selection 5.7.1 Hotspots Identification 5.7.2 Validation and Selection of Study Area 5.7.3 Study Area 6 Social Perspectives on Urban Water Security 6.1 Respondents’ Profile 6.2 Multi Factor Analysis 6.3 MFA Model 6.3.1 MFA Analysis Steps 6.3.2 Dimensions, Contributions & Selection 6.4 Ordinal Exploration of Significant Parameters 6.4.1 Perception and Attitudes towards Biophysical Environment 6.4.2 Role of Participatory Processes in Water Security 6.4.3 Summary of Results 6.5 Categorical Association of Significant Parameters 6.5.1 Association of Socio-economic Demographics with Water Security 6.5.2 Association of Built-environment with Water Security 6.5.3 Summary of Results 6.6 Urban Water Security in Socio-Spatial Perspective 7 Synthesizing NbS for Urban Water Security 7.1 Considerations for NbS from Socio-spatial Perspectives 7.2 NbS Awareness and Preferences from Surveys 7.3 NbS Preferences in Social Environmental and Economic Aspects 7.4 Spatial Aspects in NbS Preferences 7.5 Evolving NbS in Socio-spatial Context: Synergies & Trade-offs 7.6 NbS Prospects in Urban Planning, Policy and Practice 7.6.1 From ‘S.E.E.’ to ‘S.E.E.S.’ 7.6.2 Enabling via Participation 7.6.3 Enabling via Policy and Regulations 7.6.4 Contextualizing NbS via Practice 7.7 Ensuring Equity and Justice through NbS 8 Conclusion: Contribution and Way Forward 8.1 Revisiting Research Questions, Aims & Objectives 8.2 Contributions of this Research 8.2.1 Research Contributions 8.2.2 Policy and Practice Contributions 8.3 Implications for Small and Medium-sized Cities 8.4 Limitations and Further Scope 8.5 NbS as Driver of Inclusive Urbanism for Urban Water Security 8.6 Achieving Sustainable Development Goals 8.7 A Note on Open Science Practice in the Thesis Annexure-1 Papers selected for state-of-the-art literature review Annexure-2 Spatial Assessment Tables Annexure-3 Social Survey Questionnaire Annexure-4 Multi Factor Analysis Test and Supplementary Tables Annexure-5 Code Scripts Bibliography

This doctoral dissertation examines the holistic health and wellbeing of a First Nation community to understand several factors relating to environmental racism and water contamination that support and hinder community health and wellbeing to inform future policy. This dissertation incorporates a mix of methodological approaches across three interrelated research studies to better understand the direct and indirect factors influencing water security and community health and wellbeing. Study 1 consists of a theoretical approach to co-creating knowledge between Indigenous collaborators and medical anthropologists. It highlights the importance of community-based participatory research in medical anthropology and frames the co-creation of a health survey through three phases as a boundary object that can create dialogical space for Indigenous and settler-scholar pedagogies and priorities. It demonstrates how CBPR and co-creation work allows for the reciprocal development of long-term partnerships that work in solidarity with the Two-Row Wampum (Kaswentha) treaty established by the Haudenosaunee Nation and European settler nations. Study 2 presents an analysis of household water access, quality, and use, specifically how E. coli and mercury contaminations of household tap water are related to reported household health conditions for a sample of 66 households (representing 226 individuals) living in Six Nations First Nation. Logistic regression models were built to identify possible associations with water use and treatment variables for mental health, eczema, and gastroenteritis, with a second model adding contaminants as predictor variables. In the second model, E. coli was found to be a significant predictor for the presence of mental health conditions within the household, and households primarily purchasing bulk bottled water were more likely to report mental health conditions. Those using bleach/chlorine to treat their tap water were more likely to report gastroenteritis. Reported tap water uses indicated that 57% of contaminated tap water was still being used for activities that may heighten exposure risks (such as washing produce). Investigating household tap water uses beyond drinking water demonstrates alternative pathways for contaminant exposures for Six Nations Peoples, who have deep cultural relationships with water. Study 3 contains a mixed methods approach to investigate the effects of water access, satisfaction, and experiences of water insecurity for the sample of 66 households in Six Nations of the Grand River First Nations, to inform culturally effective ways of assessing water insecurity for Indigenous Nations experiencing long term water shortages, contamination, and other water- related concerns. Water security was measured using the Household Water InSecurity Experiences (HWISE) scale and Likert-scale questions on water access at household, community, service, and environmental levels, and contextualized using interviews. Results demonstrate a high level of water insecurity in the sample of Six Nations households (57.5%, n=38); women were more dissatisfied with their drinking water (p=0.005), and younger participants were more likely to report contamination issues (p=0.02) and higher monthly water costs (p=0.03). Qualitative interviews informed these results, revealing that experiences of water insecurity and poor health were shaped by the degradation of traditional lands. This posed specific barriers for Six Nations women, who face physical and geographical barriers to household and community water access while caretaking for their communities and fulfilling their roles as water protectors. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / The goal of this doctoral dissertation was to explore the connections between water security and health with Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation, to explore the nuanced factors that inform perceptions of drinking water and better understand who in the community faces higher challenges and barriers throughout the water crisis. This project was co-created research using Indigenous Knowledge (IK) with medical anthropology approaches to understand water security, satisfaction, quality, and relationships as they relate to Haudenosaunee health. Water security was explored through tap and well water contamination tests, survey data, and interviews and focus groups. Water insecurity was reported for 57.5% of 66 households in this sample, with 21.2% having E. coli contamination in their tap water, 25.4% having mercury in their tap water exceeding provincial drinking water limits, and 77% of households relying primarily on bottled drinking water rather than their tap water. While water insecurity experiences were quite high in this study, Western metrics are not able to capture the crucial elements of Indigenous water relationships, such as community and cultural relationships with the land, environmental racism, and the consequences of environmental degradation, such as grief or poor mental health, relating to water and climate crisis. Water insecurity experiences are best understood as highly localized experiences that have mental health, physical health, and environmental consequences for Indigenous communities. To fully untangle the specific cultural, spiritual, racial, and colonial landscapes or structures that have shaped Six Nations experiences and perceptions of their local water, co-created and flexible place- based methodologies are needed.

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<p>In this thesis I argue that the utility of employing the human right to water within discussions of water security is intimately related to the population under consideration, such that its use can be more or less effective depending on <em>whose</em> water security one is considering. This is owed to the fact that employing the human right to water in discussions of water security is useful only in the case of states that are able to satisfy the conditions necessary for the successful implementation of the human right to water as a positive legal right: i) being possessed of adequate amounts of the resource in question, ii) being possessed of the political willingness to provide the resource, and iii) being possessed of the capacity, including the infrastructure, to supply the end user with the resource.</p> / Master of Arts (MA)

The communication of naturally complex issues like climate change, tipping points, socio-ecological systems, and their interaction with the hydrological cycle and water security is equally important as it is challenging. Beyond the complexity, the long-term and often delayed characteristics furthermore do not match with either political election cycles or quarterly business reports. Academic institutions are at the forefront to assess, reveal and understand such complex systems, but certainly more engagement is needed to effectively transfer the most urgent derivations in practice and policy on the one hand, but also invest into a continuing effort in creating a general understanding and susceptibility to crucial stakeholders of those characteristics on the other. Transformative interaction, and hence closing the gap between knowledge generation and best practice application needs to be eased down to an implementable level, but without any oversimplification. A prerequisite for such an approach in successful multilateral cooperation would be a common baseline – a mutual Water Culture among all stakeholders when addressing water security with meaningful climate adaptation measures.:Background Climate Change Water Security Chances in Multilateral Cooperation Session Summary Urban water security – assessment framework and application Contributions of higher education to climate adaptation and water security Call for transfer measures Commitments Speakers/Panel