Next-generation sequencing technology provides high-resolution data for epidemiological surveillance of bacterial pathogens on local and global scales. This approach has been used for many species including Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). In this thesis I demonstrate the utility of these data for understanding the spread of the globally disseminated clone MRSA ST239. I focus both on local and national-level epidemiology through sequence data of 71 isolates recovered from four hospitals representing three cities in Turkey; Istanbul (x2). Ankara and Izmir. I analyse whole genome sequence data from a further 33 ST239 isolates from global sources. These data were combined with previously published data for phylogenetic analysis based only on the core genome. I demonstrate how transmission events can be inferred from this approach on multiple levels; within hospital, between hospitals and between countries. The data pointed to a European origin of ST239, and independent introductions from Europe to Turkey, South America and East Asia. I also demonstrate how whole genome sequence data can be used to develop bespoke PCR assays, based on phage variation, for rapid local epidemiology. Finally, I consider how the sequence data might be used to explain variation in virulence potential, and describe the distribution and transfer of an important phage-borne virulence determinant, sasX, within Europe. Finally, I identified a single isolate with very strong biofilm forming ability likely due to the over-expression of the important adhesion SasG.

Découverte il y a plus d’un siècle, Salmonella n’a cessé d’intriguer les chercheurs. Sa capacité à résister à de nombreux antibiotiques est de plus en plus préoccupante. La surveillance de ce pathogène repose sur un typage rapide et discriminant de façon à identifier le plus précocement possible les sources alimentaires contaminées. Les méthodes classiques sont longues, lourdes et non automatisables. Comprendre l’émergence et l’évolution des Salmonella est la clé pour éradiquer ce pathogène resté l’une des premières causes de diarrhées bactériennes d’origine alimentaire dans le monde. Au cours des dernières décennies, des progrès spectaculaires ont été menés dans le monde de la microbiologie avec l’arrivée des séquenceurs de paillasse, passant du traitement d’une dizaine à des centaines de millions de séquences. L’accès facilité aux séquences génomiques et aux outils qui leurs sont dédiés sont devenus une nécessité. Les outils actuellement disponibles ne sont pas assez discriminants pour sous-typer S. enterica sérotype Typhimurium (STM), sérotype prédominant de Salmonella. Nous avons voulu lors de ce travail, montrer l’intérêt du séquençage entier du génome, pour l’étude génomique de Salmonella. (1) Après avoir séquencé plus de 300 génomes de STM, nous avons mis au point un outil de sous-typage in silico de ce sérotype, basé sur le polymorphisme des CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats). La surveillance à haut débit des salmonelloses a été validée en routine sur plus de 800 génomes. L’étude de la coévolution entre le chromosome (SNPs) et les régions CRISPR ont permis d’établir une nomenclature définissant les différentes populations de STM. (2) L’analyse génomique de 280 souches historiques de STM a montré que les gènes de bêta-lactamase conférant une résistance à l’ampicilline et portés par des plasmides étaient répandus chez STM à la fin des années 1950, bien avant l’utilisation de cet antibiotique. La présence de la pénicilline G dans le milieu agricole où ces composés ont été utilisés en tant que promoteurs de croissance ont pu conduire à la sélection des premières souches résistantes à l’ampicilline. (3) L’étude phylogénétique d’un génome issu du cadavre d’une femme décédée il y a plus de 800 ans, probablement à cause de la fièvre entérique et de 219 génomes historiques et récents des sérotypes Paratyphi C, Choleraesuis et Typhisuis ont montré que leurs génomes étaient très similaires au cours des 4000 dernières années. Ainsi, la combinaison des approches génotypique et phylogénétique ont accru nos connaissances sur l’évolution de ce pathogène.Mots clés : Séquençage entier du génome, surveillance épidémiologique, CRISPR, SNP, résistance antibiotique, phylogénie, évolution / Over a century has passed since the discovery of Salmonella and yet, this pathogen still intrigues researchers. Its ability to withstand many antibiotics is of increasing concern. The monitoring of this pathogen is based on a rapid and discriminatory typing to identify the sources of contaminated food as early as possible. The conventional methods are long, heavy and non-automatable. Understanding the emergence and evolution of Salmonella is the key to eradicate this pathogen, which has remained one of the leading causes of foodborne bacterial diarrhea in the world. During the last decades, spectacular progress has been made in the world of microbiology with the arrival of workbench sequencers, passing from a dozen to hundreds of millions of sequences processed. Facilitated access to numerous genome sequences and dedicated tools are mandatory. Tools currently available are not sufficiently discriminating for the subtype of S. enterica serotype Typhimurium, a predominant serotype of Salmonella. Throughout this study, we showed the interest of whole genome sequencing, a multidisciplinary tool, for the genomic study of Salmonella. (1) After sequencing over 300 S. enterica serotype Typhimurium genomes, we have developed an in silico subtyping tool for this serotype, based on the CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) polymorphism. High-throughput microbiological monitoring of salmonellosis has been routinely validated on over 800 genomes. The study of coevolution between the chromosome (SNPs of the core genome) and the two CRISPR regions made it possible to establish a nomenclature defining the different populations of this serotype. (2) Genomic analysis of 280 historical strains of S. enterica serotype Typhimurium showed that plasmids carrying beta-lactamase genes, which confer resistance to ampicillin, were widespread within this serotype in the late 1950s, years before ampicillin was first used for clinical purposes. The presence of penicillin G in the farming environment where these compounds were used as growth promoters, may have led to the selection of the first ampicillin-resistant strains. (3) The phylogenetic study of a genome from the corpse of a young woman who died over 800 years ago, probably due to enteric fever, and 219 historical and recent genomes of the serotypes Paratyphi C, Choleraesuis and Typhisuis have shown, despite the differences in host specificity, that their genomes were very similar over the past 4000 years. Thus, the combination of genotypic and phylogenetic approaches has increased our knowledge of the evolution of this pathogen.Key words: Whole genome sequencing, epidemiological monitoring, CRISPR, SNP, antibiotic resistance, phylogeny, evolution

Leishmaniasis is a human and animal disease caused by digenetic parasites of the genus Leishmania, which is now divided into 4 subgenera - L. (Leishmania), L. (Viannia), L. (Sauroleishmania) and L. (Mundinia). Subgenus Mundinia was established in 2016 and consists of 5 species - L. enriettii and L. macropodum are parasites of wild mammals and L. martiniquensis, L. orientalis and unnamed L. sp. from Ghana are infectious to humans. Mundinia are geographically widely dispersed, their distribution covers all continents, except of Antarctica. Despite phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) also biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) are supposed to be involved in transmission of these species, which is a unique feature for this subgenus. But there is little to no current information on natural reservoir hosts and vector species for any Mundinia species. In this thesis we tested possible vectors and potential model organisms (Guinea-pigs) and reservoir hosts of Mundinia species by experimental infections. We used 3 sand fly species sharing geographical distribution with respective Mundinia species and available in our laboratory for experimental infections. Sand flies from Australia had never been colonised so we used the permissive vector Lu. migonei for testing development of L. macropodum....

The soybean crop is one of the main agricultural crops, with high global economic relevance. The large area under soybean cultivation in Brazil, including the incorporation of new areas in the northern and midwestern regions, mostly under monoculture and non-tillage system, has been affected the prevalence and the intensity of diseases. Among these, one of most prominent is anthracnose, mainly associated with the fungal species Colletotrichum truncatum. Knowledge of the genetic structure of plant pathogen populations can be used to infer their life histories and the evolutionary processes that shape populations in the agroecosystems, which can help to implement effective disease management strategies. However, the genetic structure of C. truncatum populations associated with soybean remains unknown. We collected C. truncatum isolates from 10 sites representing two of main areas of soybean producing in Brazil and used microsatellite markers and whole-genome sequencing to investigate the population biology and evolutionary history of this important pathogen. The multilocus microsatellite typing of 237 isolates revealed high gene and haplotypic diversity within populations, as well low genetic differentiation and sharing of multilocus haplotypes among populations and regions. In addition, three distinct genetic clusters were detected, coexisting in syntopy in the soybean fields, without evidence of admixture between them. Such finding suggesting that Brazilian C. truncatum populations resulted from at least three founder events, which led to three genetic lineages that spread throughout the country. However, the genetic makeup of these lineages remains unknow, and their extreme geographic proximity raises the question of the maintenance of their genetic integrity in the face of admixture. In order to gain insights into the evolutionary history of C. truncatum lineages and to investigate in more details the possibility of a lack of genetic exchanges between them, we employed a population genomic approach. For that, we produced a draft genome sequence of a typical strain of the species associated with soybean anthracnose, which was used as the reference genome. Eighteen representative C. truncatum isolates from the three lineages were submitted to whole genome sequencing, aligned against the reference genome, and variants were identified. Our population genomic analyzes revealed that the genetic structure of C. truncatum pathogen causing soybean anthracnose is formed by three deeply divergent lineages with levels of genetic diversity consistent with repeated introduction events for each lineage. We also found evidence for sexual recombination within and between lineages, with multiples isolates displaying signatures of admixture. Our findings support a scenario in which the three lineages initially diverged in allopatry before experiencing hybridization following secondary contact. Monitoring of the pathogen\'s diversity over time is needed to reveal whether these lineages maintain or fuse, which can impact the disease control methods currently employed. / A soja é uma das principais culturas agrícolas, com alta relevância econômica global. A grande área sob cultivo de soja no Brasil, incluindo a incorporação de novas áreas nas regiões norte e centro-oeste, principalmente sob monocultura e plantio direto, tem afetado a prevalência e a intensidade das doenças. Entre elas, uma das mais proeminentes é a antracnose, principalmente associada à espécie fúngica Colletotrichum truncatum. O conhecimento da estrutura genética das populações de patógenos de plantas pode ser usado para inferir suas histórias de vida e os processos evolutivos que moldam as populações nos agroecossistemas, o que pode ajudar a implementar estratégias eficazes de manejo da doença. No entanto, a estrutura genética das populações de C. truncatum associadas à soja permanece desconhecida. Coletamos isolados de C. truncatum em 10 áreas, representando duas principais regiões produtoras de soja no Brasil. Utilizamos marcadores microssatélites e sequenciamento do genoma completo para investigar a biologia populacional e a história evolutiva desse importante patógeno. A tipagem de microssatélites multilocus de 237 isolados revelou alta diversidade genética e haplotípica nas populações, bem como baixa diferenciação genética e compartilhamento de haplótipos entre populações e regiões. Além disso, foram detectados três grupos genéticos distintos, coexistindo nas mesmas áreas, sem evidência de mistura entre eles. Isto sugere que as populações C. truncatum no Brasil resultaram de pelo menos três eventos fundadores, o que levou á formação das três linhagens genéticas que se espalharam pelo país. No entanto, a composição genética dessas linhagens permanece desconhecida, e sua extrema proximidade geográfica levanta a questão sobre a manutenção de sua integridade genética em face a mistura entre elas. A fim de analisar a história evolutiva das linhagens de C. truncatum e investigar a possibilidade de ausência de trocas genéticas entre elas, empregamos uma abordagem genômica populacional. Para isso, produzimos uma versão preliminar do genoma completo de um isolado típico da espécie, o qual foi utilizado como genoma de referência. Dezoito isolados representativos das três linhagens foram submetidos ao sequenciamento completo, alinhados ao genoma de referência, e variantes foram identificados. Nossas análises genômicas populacionais revelaram que a estrutura genética do patógeno é formada por três linhagens profundamente divergentes, com níveis de diversidade consistentes com repetidos eventos de introdução para cada linhagem. Também encontramos evidências de recombinação sexual dentro e entre linhagens, com múltiplos isolados apresentando assinaturas de mistura. Nossas descobertas sugerem um cenário no qual as três linhagens divergiram inicialmente em alopatria antes de experimentar hibridação, após contato secundário. O monitoramento da diversidade do patógeno ao longo do tempo é necessário para revelar se essas linhagens se mantêm geneticamente separadas ou se fundem, o que pode afetar os métodos de controle da doença atualmente empregados.

<p>In Molecular Medicine a wide range of methods are applied to analyze the genome to find genetic predictors of human disease. Apart from predisposing disease, genetic variations may also serve as genetic markers in the search for factors underlying complex diseases. Additionally, they provide a means to distinguish between species, analyze evolutionary relationships and subdivide species into strains. </p><p>The development and improvement of laboratory techniques and computational methods was a spin-off effect of the Human Genome Project. The same techniques for analyzing genomic sequence variations may be used independent of organism or source of DNA or RNA. In this thesis, methods for high-throughput analysis of sequence variations were developed, evaluated and applied. </p><p>The performance of several genotyping assays were investigated prior to genotyping 4000 samples in a co-operative genetic epidemiological study. Sequence variations in the estrogen receptor alpha gene were found to be associated with an increased risk of breast and endometrial cancer in Swedish women.</p><p>Whole genome amplification (WGA) enables large scale genetic analysis of sparse amounts of biobanked DNA samples. The performance of two WGA methods was evaluated using four-color minisequencing on tag-arrays. Our in-house developed assay and “array of arrays” format allow up to 80 samples to be analyzed in parallel on a single microscope slide. Multiple displacement amplification by the Φ29 DNA polymerase gave essentially identical genotyping results as genomic DNA. To facilitate accurate method comparisons, a cluster quality assessment approach was established and applied to assess the performance of four commercially available DNA polymerases in the tag-array minisequencing assay. </p><p>A microarray method for genotyping human group A rotavirus (HRV) was developed and applied to an epidemiological survey of infectious HRV strains in Nicaragua. The method combines specific capture of amplified viral sequences on microarrays with genotype-specific DNA-polymerase mediated extension of capture oligonucleotides with fluorescent dNTPs.</p>

<p>In this thesis, the four-color fluorescence tag-microarray minisequencing system pioneered by our group was further developed and applied for analysing genetic variation in human DNA and RNA. A SNP marker panel representing different chromosomal regions was established and used for identification of informative SNP markers for monitoring chimerism after stem cell transplantation (SCT). The success of SCT was monitored by measuring the allelic ratios of informative SNPs in follow-up samples from nine patients with leukaemia. The results agreed with data obtained using microsatellite markers. Further the same SNP marker panel was used for evaluation of two whole genome amplification methods, primer extension preamplification (PEP) and multiple displacement amplification (MDA) in comparison with genomic DNA with respect to SNP genotyping success and accuracy in tag-array minisequencing. Identical results were obtained from MDA products and genomic DNA.</p><p>The tag-microarray minisequencing system was also established for multiplexed quantification of imbalanced expression of SNP alleles. Two endothelial cell lines and a panel of ten coding SNPs in five genes were used as model system. Six heterozygous SNPs were genotyped in RNA (cDNA) from the cell lines. Comparison of the relative amounts of the SNPs alleles in cDNA to heterozygote SNPs in genomic DNA displayed four SNPs with significant imbalanced expression between the SNP alleles. Finally, the tag-array minisequencing system was modified for detection of splice variants in mRNA from five leukaemia cell lines. A panel of 20 cancer-related genes with 74 alternatively splice variants was screened. Over half of the splice variants were detected in the cell lines, and similar alternative splicing patterns were observed in each cell line. The results were verified by size analysis of the PCR product subjected to the minisequencing primer extension reaction. The data from both methods agreed well, evidencing for a high sensitivity of our system.</p>

In Molecular Medicine a wide range of methods are applied to analyze the genome to find genetic predictors of human disease. Apart from predisposing disease, genetic variations may also serve as genetic markers in the search for factors underlying complex diseases. Additionally, they provide a means to distinguish between species, analyze evolutionary relationships and subdivide species into strains. The development and improvement of laboratory techniques and computational methods was a spin-off effect of the Human Genome Project. The same techniques for analyzing genomic sequence variations may be used independent of organism or source of DNA or RNA. In this thesis, methods for high-throughput analysis of sequence variations were developed, evaluated and applied. The performance of several genotyping assays were investigated prior to genotyping 4000 samples in a co-operative genetic epidemiological study. Sequence variations in the estrogen receptor alpha gene were found to be associated with an increased risk of breast and endometrial cancer in Swedish women. Whole genome amplification (WGA) enables large scale genetic analysis of sparse amounts of biobanked DNA samples. The performance of two WGA methods was evaluated using four-color minisequencing on tag-arrays. Our in-house developed assay and “array of arrays” format allow up to 80 samples to be analyzed in parallel on a single microscope slide. Multiple displacement amplification by the Φ29 DNA polymerase gave essentially identical genotyping results as genomic DNA. To facilitate accurate method comparisons, a cluster quality assessment approach was established and applied to assess the performance of four commercially available DNA polymerases in the tag-array minisequencing assay. A microarray method for genotyping human group A rotavirus (HRV) was developed and applied to an epidemiological survey of infectious HRV strains in Nicaragua. The method combines specific capture of amplified viral sequences on microarrays with genotype-specific DNA-polymerase mediated extension of capture oligonucleotides with fluorescent dNTPs.

In this thesis, the four-color fluorescence tag-microarray minisequencing system pioneered by our group was further developed and applied for analysing genetic variation in human DNA and RNA. A SNP marker panel representing different chromosomal regions was established and used for identification of informative SNP markers for monitoring chimerism after stem cell transplantation (SCT). The success of SCT was monitored by measuring the allelic ratios of informative SNPs in follow-up samples from nine patients with leukaemia. The results agreed with data obtained using microsatellite markers. Further the same SNP marker panel was used for evaluation of two whole genome amplification methods, primer extension preamplification (PEP) and multiple displacement amplification (MDA) in comparison with genomic DNA with respect to SNP genotyping success and accuracy in tag-array minisequencing. Identical results were obtained from MDA products and genomic DNA. The tag-microarray minisequencing system was also established for multiplexed quantification of imbalanced expression of SNP alleles. Two endothelial cell lines and a panel of ten coding SNPs in five genes were used as model system. Six heterozygous SNPs were genotyped in RNA (cDNA) from the cell lines. Comparison of the relative amounts of the SNPs alleles in cDNA to heterozygote SNPs in genomic DNA displayed four SNPs with significant imbalanced expression between the SNP alleles. Finally, the tag-array minisequencing system was modified for detection of splice variants in mRNA from five leukaemia cell lines. A panel of 20 cancer-related genes with 74 alternatively splice variants was screened. Over half of the splice variants were detected in the cell lines, and similar alternative splicing patterns were observed in each cell line. The results were verified by size analysis of the PCR product subjected to the minisequencing primer extension reaction. The data from both methods agreed well, evidencing for a high sensitivity of our system.

The dog was the first animal to be domesticated and the process started at least 15 000 years ago. Today it is the most morphologically diverse mammal, with a huge variation in size and shape. Dogs have always been useful to humans in several ways, from being a food source, hunting companion, guard, social companion and lately also a model for scientific research. This thesis describes some of the changes that have occurred in the dog’s genome, both during the domestication process and later through breed creation. To give a more comprehensive view, three genetic systems were studied: maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA, paternally inherited Y chromosome and biparental autosomal chromosomes. I also sequenced complete mitochondrial genomes to view the effect new living conditions might have had on dogs’ genes after domestication. Finally, knowledge of the genetic structure in purebred dogs was used to test analytic methods usable in other species or in natural populations where little information is available. The domestication process appears to have caused a relaxation of the selective constraint in the mitochondrial genome, leading to a faster rate of accumulation of nonsynonymous changes in the mitochondrial genes. Later, the process of breed creation resulted in genetically separated breed groups. Breeds are a result from an unequal contribution of males and females with only a few popular sires contributing and a larger amount of dams. However, modern breeder preferences might lead to disruptive selective forces within breeds, which can result in additional fragmentation of breeds. The increase in linkage disequilibrium that this represents increases the value of purebred dogs as model organisms for the identification and mapping of diseases and traits. Purebred dogs’ potential for these kinds of studies will probably increase the more we know about the dog’s genome.

No description available.