Diseases of Women, Book I, is part of the Hippocratic Corpus of approximately seventy treatises, although different authors contributed to the writings, as is evident by slight changes in text. It is the first of three works by Hippocrates on gynaecological problems. Fifth century BC doctors did not dissect either humans or animals, so their theories were based purely on observation and experience. Book I deals with women who have problems with menstruation, either the lack of it or an excess, infertility and, when conception does take place, the threat of miscarriage and dealing with the stillborn child. Various remedies are given, including herbal infusions, vapour baths and mixtures that the modern day patient would shudder at, e.g. animal dung and headless, wingless beetles. One remedy, hypericum, or St John's Wort, used for depression, has become popular today as an alternative medicine. / Old Testament and Ancient Near Eastern Studies / M.A. (with specialisation in Ancient Languages and Cultures)

The study investigated the lived experiences of women suffering from Multiple Sclerosis in Johannesburg and the East Rand. The study aimed at describing how these experiences affect their lives, and how these women cope after being diagnosed. A qualitative approach was utilised following an exploratory, descriptive, phenomenological, contextual research design. An in-depth literature study was conducted for information used as a basis for the study. Data collection included semi-structured interviews and a focus group. Data-analysis revealed a lack of understanding for the emotional, physical and social problems encountered. Recommendations proposed that the community be sensitised to the reality of MS and disabled persons, and that comprehensive support structures be put in place to attend to the needs of women suffering from Multiple Sclerosis. / Health Studies / M.A. (Health Studies)

MSc (Microbiology) / Department of Microbiology / BACKGROUND: Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a common sexually transmitted virus known to be a causative agent of cervical cancer (CC), one of the most frequent cancers in women worldwide. HPV is a double stranded DNA virus of approximately 7,900 bp; belonging to Papillomaviridae family. To date, about 202 low risk (LR) and high risk (HR) HPV genotypes have been identified. However, available vaccines against HPV infection are designed based on the most common known genotypes. Therefore, it is critical to understand the scope and diversity of HPV genotypes in all geographical locations which can help to inform the design and development of future vaccines. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to describe the burden and diversity of HPV genotypes in a cohort of women in routine care in northern South Africa. METHODS: Eighty seven women consented to participate in the study and each provided a specimen for analysis. With the help of qualified health care practitioners, Aptima Cervical Specimen Collection and Transport Kit (Hologic, San Diego, CA) was used to collect cervical specimens from each study participant following the manufacturer’s procedure. Total DNA was purified from the cervical pellet using QIAamp DNA mini kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The purified DNA was then subjected to a single round conventional PCR in a reaction volume of 100 μl to amplify HPV L1 gene comprising of approximately 450 bp. A portion of each PCR amplicon from each participant was denatured, hybridized and genotyped using the Linear Array HPV genotyping Test Kit (Roche Molecular Systems, Inc. Branchburg, NJ USA). The kit is designed to detect 37 HPV genotypes (genotypes 6, 11, 16, 18, 26, 31, 33, 35, 39, 40, 42, 45, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 61, 62, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 81, 82, 83, 84, IS39 and CP6108). To detect the HPV genotypes, the Linear Array (LA) reference guide was used for results interpretation following the manufacturer’s instructions. The other portion of each of the amplicons was subjected to next generation sequencing (NGS) using the Illumina MiniSeq platform. Using the Nextera XT DNA Library preparation kit, an initial input of 1ng genomic DNA was tagmented, cleaned up, normalized and pooled. The pooled library was then denatured with 0.1 N NaOH and diluted into a final volume of 500 μl at 1.8 pM then sequenced using the Local Run Manager option following the manufacturer’s instructions. The generated sequence data was downloaded into fastaQ format and analysed using Genious 11.0.5 software. RESULTS: Of the 87 participants, the overall proportion of women harbouring HPV DNA by linear array (LA) PCR was 23% (n=20). Of the 20, 16 (80%) were living with HIV. However, this difference was not significant (p=0.077). Genotyping data generated by Roche LA method was successful for all the 20 positive amplicons. In this study, 27 (73%) of the 37 HPV genotypes incorporated in the Roche Linear Array method were detected. The detected genotypes include: types 84, 83, 81, 73, 72, 71, 70, 69, 68, 66, 62, 61, 59, 54, 53, 52, 51, 45, 42, 39, 35, 26, 18, 16, 6, IS39 and CP6108. Most women (15/20;75%) harboured multiple infections compared to single infection. In terms of genotypes distribution, the most frequent genotypes detected LR HPV types in increasing order of frequency included HPV type 61 and 83 (12%), 62 (36%) and 81 (43%). On the other hand, HPV type 66, 53, 52, 51, 18 and 16 were the most common genotypes detected HR HPV types. In contrast, although genotyping data was successfully generated from 15 of 20 women (75%), NGS technology was seen to be more sensitive compared to Roche LA method. Nearly all the detected genotypes identified by the commercial kit were detected by NGS. In addition, NGS detected 10 namely: HPV types 11, 31, 33, 40, 55, 56, 58, 64, 67, and 82 that were not detected by the LA yet incorporated in the kit. Moreover, it was observed that NGS identified additional 6 HPV types including HPV types 2, 27, 30, 35, 85 and 102 not incorporated in the Roche LA kit. A similar distribution of HPV multiple infections was observed in the study population, however, high frequency of 93% (14 of 15) was detected by NGS. The proportion of women harbouring one or more of the 22 LR HPV types was 100% (n=15).The most frequent LR genotypes in increasing order of frequency was HPV type 62 and 70 (27%), 6 (40%) and 11 (47%). HPV types 40, 42, 54, 72, 64, and 81 were the least detected genotypes with n=1 (7%) each. Furthermore, the common combination observed among the participants was type 6 and 11. In contrast, the most frequent detected genotypes in the study population by NGS under the HR HPV types in increasing order of frequency include type 35 (21%), 39, 56 and 82 (29%), 68 (36%) and 51 (50%). In addition, HPV types 26, 31, 45, 53, 56, 58 and 66 were the least detected genotypes n=1 (7%) in the study population. HPV 39 and 68 were observed as the common combination detected under HR HPV types. Following genotyping by LA and NGS, the demographic and clinical data of all the 20 positive subjects by PCR were subjected to statistical analysis to determine the association between HPV positive DNA status and associated risk factors. Smoking status (p=0.000), age at first sexual intercourse (p=0.011), vaccination status (p=0.000), gender of sexual partner (p=0.000), highest level of education (p=0.004), marital status (p=0.008) and number of sexual partners (p=0.000) were found to be having a positive statistical association. CONCLUSION: Amplification of targeted HPV DNA from cervical specimens demonstrated the presence of HPV infection in the study cohort, with a proportion of 23%. The findings illustrate that there is a diversity of HPV genotypes prevalent in the study population as shown by Roche LA and NGS methods. However, the NGS method was observed to be more sensitive than Roche LA in detecting HPV genotypes. Furthermore, NGS identified 6 additional HPV types not incorporated in the Roche LA. Thus, there are genotypes that may be present in the study population that the Roche commercial kit may fail to detect. Therefore, is it imperative to use both genotyping methods to confirm HPV genotypes. / NRF

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Rates of chronic disease and physical inactivity are disproportionately high among African American women. Despite the known benefits of physical activity and an increasing number of programs designed to increase activity, attendance rates to many exercise programs remain low. There is much to learn about program types, such as healthy lifestyle programs (HLP); individual factors, such as self-efficacy; and mediating variables that may influence exercise program attendance. An observational study design was used to compare exercise self-efficacy and attendance in a community-based exercise program in African American women who were enrolled in a HLP (N = 53) to women who were not (N = 27). Exercise program attendance was gathered across six months; demographics, self-efficacy and physical activity behaviors were assessed through surveys; and physiological variables (resting heart rate and blood pressure, height, and weight) and physical fitness (muscular strength and endurance and cardiovascular endurance) were measured at baseline. Descriptive statistics were used to describe participants and groups were compared using T-tests, chi-square and non-parametric statistics. Finally, mediation analyses were conducted using multiple regression models to assess self-efficacy as a potential mediator to exercise program attendance. Women who enrolled in this study were of low income (61% having an annual income less than $20,000), obese with a mean (standard deviation) body mass index (BMI) of 37.7 (7.6), pre-hypertensive with a mean (standard deviation) systolic blood pressure of 125.9 (14.4), and scored poorly and marginally on two fitness tests. On average, women reported being Moderately Confident in their ability to exercise regularly, yet had low attendance in the exercise program with a median number .5 days over six months and there were no significant differences in exercise self-efficacy (p = .23) or attendance in the exercise program between groups (p = .79). Additionally, exercise self-efficacy was not a mediating variable to program attendance. Women in this study had little discretionary income and several chronic disease risk factors, yet exercise program attendance was low even in those enrolled in a HLP. Identifying factors that increase exercise self-efficacy and factors that influence attendance beyond self-efficacy may help future program design and attendance.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The presence of a chronic pain condition can have a profound impact on one’s self-concept. Some individuals may have had to make major lifestyle changes. As a result, some people may start to define themselves in terms of their pain, such that their self-schema and pain-schemas become intertwined in a process termed schema-enmeshment. It is thought that schema-enmeshment is related to psychological distress making it a prime target for intervention. Little research has been conducted on interventions to reduce schema-enmeshment. Acceptance-based interventions may be especially appropriate in reducing schema-enmeshment or the connection between self and illness symptoms as these interventions tend to emphasize learning to live with pain and other symptoms and to work toward important life goals rather than continually fighting against the condition and allowing it to control their life. This study is a randomized trial comparing Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) to education about pain management in a sample of women with Fibromyalgia Syndrome (FMS). The primary aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of ACT in reducing schema-enmeshment between self and pain, as well as enmeshment between self and other symptoms and FMS as a whole. In addition, this study also explored the role of pain acceptance, specifically activity engagement as a mediator of the relationship between treatment group membership and changes in schema-enmeshment. The data was analyzed as an intent-to-treat analysis using the “last measure carried forward” method. Results indicated that the ACT group reported statistically significant differences in self schema-enmeshment with FMS, fatigue, and cognitive symptoms, but not with pain, following the intervention, compared to the educational control group. In each of these cases, the ACT group experienced greater reductions in schema-enmeshment compared to the education group. Interestingly, no statistically significant differences were observed for schema-enmeshment with pain. Statistically significant group differences were also observed for acceptance of pain following the intervention. Finally, a mediational model in which changes in activity engagement (a form of pain acceptance) served as the mediator of the relationship between treatment group and changes in schema-enmeshment with FMS was tested. The model was tested using a bootstrapping method, and results revealed a trend toward a significant indirect effect of changes in activity engagement leading to changes in schema-enmeshment with FMS. Taken together, the results of this study indicate that ACT may be a promising intervention for targeting maladaptive beliefs about the self in relation to illness, especially schema-enmeshment of self with illness and illness symptoms. Additionally, there is evidence that ACT may target key constructs such as activity engagement, which may be related to other cognitive and behavioral changes. Future directions for research and clinical practice related to ACT as an intervention for FMS are discussed in depth.

This study focussed on determining the knowledge and understanding of Angolan women pertaining to the causes and consequences of HIV/AIDS with the aim of developing an information leaflet about HIV/AIDS for disseminating information to the vulnerable community. A quantitative approach was applied using an exploratory and descriptive design, utilising a self-developed questionnaire to collect the data, from 100 females who accompanied sick children to a specific hospital in Luanda. The findings indicated that even though the respondents were aware of certain key issues in the transmission and consequences of the HIV infection, there were many areas in which a great measure of uncertainty existed such as the causes of the disease, prevention methods, risk factors and precautions to take when living with an HIV positive person. Recommendations were made in view of enhancing the distribution of information regarding the causes and consequences of HIV and AIDS by means of different structures. / HEALTH STUDIES / MA (HEALTH STUDIES)

This research investigates how the speech community living in Maputo city uses language in relation to HIV/AIDS and studies related stigmas which impede women's access to HIV/AIDS counselling services. My hypothesis is that frequent use of gender stereotypes in AIDS discourse aims at stigmatising women as AIDS propagators, while minimizing male sexual transgressions in the AIDS crisis. Interpretation of primary data collected via focus group discussions and interviews is done with five different approaches that study respectively: social meanings and representations of AIDS embedded in context, the stigmatising process correlating gender stereotypes and discrimination against women, stereotypical speech attitudes and speech mechanism as well as the functions and effects of stereotyping. My conclusion is that deeply rooted gender barriers are to be removed in order to combat the social plague of AIDS and that ethnography of communication offers interesting models for development projects that can initiate behavioural changes through speech. / Linguistics / M.A. (Sociolinguistics)

Background: Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 (HSV 2) is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections (STIs) worldwide. HSV 2 infection is a risk factor for the acquisition and transmission of other STIs. Aim: The aim of this study is to determine prevalence and predictors of HSV 2 infection in Durban, South Africa by using available data that has not been previously analysed for the purpose of adding scientific evidence to the existing body of knowledge relating to HSV 2. Method: The study involves secondary analyses of data collected as a prospective study which enrolled women who participated in a clinical trial. A total of 3472 sexually active women were screened in the primary study from two clinics in Durban. All consenting participants were tested for HIV, HSV 2, Trichomonas vaginalis (TV), Neisseria gonorrhoea (NG) and Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) infection. Results: There were 2532 women who had HSV 2 giving a prevalence of 73%. Of these, 53% also tested positive for HIV infection. In univariate analysis, co-infection with HIV was strongly associated with HSV2 (Odds Ratio (OR): 7.4, 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 6.0, 9.1, p<0.001). There was also an association between other STIs, such as CT, NG and syphilis and HSV 2, although only NG was significantly associated with prevalent of HSV 2 (OR: 2.3, 95% CI: 1.3, 4.1, p=0.005). Women older than 25 years of age more likely to have HSV 2 (OR: 2.4, 95% CI: 2.0,2.8, p<0.001). A risk of being infected with HSV 2 increased with the number of reported lifetime sexual partners Those with two and three or more were 2,5 and 4.6 times more likely to have HSV2 respectively (OR: 2.5, 95% CI: 2.1,3.1, p<0.001 and OR: 4.6, 95% CI: 3.8, 5.6, p<0.001 respectively). Women who had less than high school education were also found to have higher risk for HSV 2. Conclusion: The secondary analysis showed a high prevalence of HSV 2 infection and a strong association of HSV 2 and HIV. A significant association of HSV 2 was noted in women having more than two sex partners and lower high school education. Therefore, it is recommended that screening for HSV 2 among high risk populations be incorporated into the STI screening and treatment packages. / Prevalence and risk factors associated with HSV 2 / Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 / HSV 2 / Department of Health Studies / M. (Public health)

This study focussed on determining the knowledge and understanding of Angolan women pertaining to the causes and consequences of HIV/AIDS with the aim of developing an information leaflet about HIV/AIDS for disseminating information to the vulnerable community. A quantitative approach was applied using an exploratory and descriptive design, utilising a self-developed questionnaire to collect the data, from 100 females who accompanied sick children to a specific hospital in Luanda. The findings indicated that even though the respondents were aware of certain key issues in the transmission and consequences of the HIV infection, there were many areas in which a great measure of uncertainty existed such as the causes of the disease, prevention methods, risk factors and precautions to take when living with an HIV positive person. Recommendations were made in view of enhancing the distribution of information regarding the causes and consequences of HIV and AIDS by means of different structures. / HEALTH STUDIES / MA (HEALTH STUDIES)

This research investigates how the speech community living in Maputo city uses language in relation to HIV/AIDS and studies related stigmas which impede women's access to HIV/AIDS counselling services. My hypothesis is that frequent use of gender stereotypes in AIDS discourse aims at stigmatising women as AIDS propagators, while minimizing male sexual transgressions in the AIDS crisis. Interpretation of primary data collected via focus group discussions and interviews is done with five different approaches that study respectively: social meanings and representations of AIDS embedded in context, the stigmatising process correlating gender stereotypes and discrimination against women, stereotypical speech attitudes and speech mechanism as well as the functions and effects of stereotyping. My conclusion is that deeply rooted gender barriers are to be removed in order to combat the social plague of AIDS and that ethnography of communication offers interesting models for development projects that can initiate behavioural changes through speech. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / M.A. (Sociolinguistics)