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De par leur diversité de mécanismes de déterminisme du sexe et de chromosomes sexuels, les poissons téléostéens représentent d’excellents modèles pour mieux comprendre les bases moléculaires et évolutives du contrôle du développement sexuel chez les vertébrés. Grâce à l’analyse de chromosomes artificiels bactériens couvrant les chromosomes sexuels du platy Xiphophorus maculatus, trois copies d’un nouveau gène nommé teximY ont été découvertes dans la région de déterminisme du sexe du chromosome Y mais pas du chromosome X. Un gène texim1 très apparenté à teximY ainsi que trois gènes plus divergents ont été identifiés sur les autosomes. Les gènes teximY sont préférentiellement exprimés dans les testicules, au niveau des cellules germinales lors des étapes tardives de la spermatogénèse, alors que texim1 est également transcrit dans les gonades femelles. Des gènes texim ont été détectés chez d'autres poissons téléostéens mais pas chez le poisson-zèbre, ainsi que chez des céphalocordés, des urocordés et des échinodermes mais pas chez les tétrapodes. Les gènes texim codent pour des estérases putatives à domaine SGNH apparentées à des protéines cellulaires procaryotes et eucaryotes ou codées par des retrotransposons animaux. Les gènes texim sont associés à des transposons Helitron chez les poissons mais pas chez les autres animaux, suggérant capture et mobilisation du gène ancestral texim par un transposon à la base de la radiation des téléostéens. TeximY pourrait jouer un rôle dans la transposition du transposon Helitron dans la lignée germinale mâle, ou correspondre à un gène de spermatogenèse mobilisé par le transposon Helitron sur les nouveaux chromosomes sexuels de poissons. / The molecular and evolutionary basis of sex determination in vertebrates needs to be unveiled via comparison of different systems. Fish exhibit hypervariability of sex determination mechanisms. Thanks to the analysis of the Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC) library covering the sex chromosomes of the platyfish Xiphophorus maculatus (Rio Jamapa population, XX /XY), three copies of a new gene have been identified in the sex-determining region of the Y but not the X chromosome, and named teximY. Four autosomal counterparts of teximY have been also detected in the genome of the platyfish with one of them, texim1 presenting 95% of cDNA sequence identity with the Y-linked copies. RT-qPCR expression analyses have been performed for each copy in male and female tissues. Two Y-linked teximY copies were preferentially expressed in testis, whereas the autosomal copy texim1 showed preferential expression in male and female gonads. In situ hybridizations with a teximY/1 probe revealed expression in late spermatids and spermatozeugmata. Texim sequences were detected in several fish species, but not in zebrafish, as well as in cephalochordates, urochordates and sea echinoderms but not in tetrapods. Predicted Texim proteins are related to proteins from different origins. Interestingly, texim genes are associated with a Helitron transposon in fish but neither in cephalochordates nor in echinoderms, suggesting capture and mobilization of an ancestral texim gene at the base of the bony fish lineage. TeximY proteins may play a role in Helitron transposition in the male germ line in fish, or texim genes are spermatogenesis genes mobilized and spread by transposable elements in fish genomes.

As teorias de envelhecimento biológico podem ser divididas em duas categorias: as teorias bioquímicas e as teorias evolucionárias. As teorias bioquímicas explicam o envelhecimento como oriundo das imperfeições dos mecanismos bioquímicos responsáveis pela manutenção da vida. As teorias evolucionárias explicam o envelhecimento sem recorrerem a mecanismos bioquímicos, mas sim a fatores adaptativos. Neste trabalho estudamos modelos teóricos de envelhecimento a luz das teorias evolucionárias. Um dos modelos evolucionários de envelhecimento mais bem-sucedido é o modelo Penna. Estudamos alguns de seus principais resultados, entre eles a senescência catastrófica e a lei de Gompertz. Discutimos também a versão sexuada do modelo, dando especial ênfase às conseqüências da fidelidade sexual e da seletividade sexual. Em 1995, simultaneamente ao surgimento do modelo Penna, foi proposto o modelo Heumann-Hotzel. Inicialmente este modelo não foi bem-sucedido devido a algumas características pouco realistas. Mas seu insucesso foi rapidamente suplantado por algumas modificações simples e essenciais. Neste trabalho investigamos, através de simulações numéricas, regimes alternativos de reprodução no modelo Heumann-Hotzel modificado. Os regimes estudados foram: reprodução sexuada com e sem recombinação genética, partenogênese meiótica, partenogênese apomítica, hermafroditismo e parassexo. Avaliamos qual a melhor estratégia evolutiva: haploidia ou diploidia, reprodução assexuada ou reprodução sexuada e, no último caso, com ou sem recombinação genética. Dentre os regimes reprodutivos analisados, um deles mereceu especial atenção. Propusemos uma versão sexuada do modelo Heumann-Hotzel modificado, onde a população tem o genoma cronológico baseado na assimetria dos cromossomos sexuais X e Y. O modelo foi denominado Modelo do Cromossomo Y. O cromossomo Y tem uma estrutura genética muito comprometida. Ele tem menos genes do que o cromossomo X e somente um terço do seu tamanho. O cromossomo Y apresenta inúmeras seqüências de genes repetitivos e uma minoria de genes funcionais. Nos homens, os cromossomos X e Y não se recombinam, enquanto que nas mulheres, seus cromossomos X se recombinam. A degeneração do cromossomo Y tem sido explicada pela não recombinação dos cromossomos X e Y. Os resultados deste trabalho sugerem uma explicação alternativa para a degeneração do cromossomo Y. Demonstramos que mesmo quando não há recombinação dos cromossomos sexuais, e com mutações atuando com mesma intensidade e freqüência, tanto em cromossomos X, quanto em cromossomos Y, a seleção natural leva a um desfavorecimento espontâneo do cromossomo Y. Concluímos que a seleção natural leva a degeneração do cromossomo Y. / Aging theories can be classified in two types: biochemical theory and evolutionary theory. The biochemical theories explain ageing due to imperfections on the biochemical process responsible for the maintenance of life. The evolutionary theories explain aging without any biochemical mechanisms. They support only adaptive strategies, such as reproduction, heredity, mutations and natural selection. In this work we studied theoretical aging models in the light of evolutionary theories. A successful ageing model was proposed by Penna in 1995. This model can reproduce a large amount of biological features. We present a review with its most important results, including catastrophic senescence and Gompertz law. We also present the sexual version of Penna model and some consequences of sexual fidelity and sexual selection. An alternative aging model was proposed in 1995, known as Heumann- Hotzel model. At the beginning, this model did not succeed due to some unrealistic features. A few modifications were necessary to give the model interesting properties. We studied, through numerical simulations, alternative forms of reproduction in the modified Heumann-Hotzel model, including sexual reproduction with and without crossing-over, meiotic parthenogenesis, apomictic parthenogenesis, hermaphroditism and parasex. We also investigated and compared what is the best strategy: haploid or diploid populations, asexual or sexual reproduction and, in this case, with or without crossing-over. One version of the sexual reproduction deserved special attention. We propose a sexual version of the modified Heumann-Hotzel model, in which the population\'s genomes have the same symmetry as the sexual chromosomes. This model was denominated Y Chromosome Model. In comparison to the other chromosomes, the Y is poor in genes and it is often called a genetic junkyard. It has fewer genes than X chromosome and one third of its length. Besides, the Y chromosome has a large amount of repetitive gene sequences and only a small number of them have some sort of function. In men, the X and Y-chromosomes do not recombine with each other, while in women their X chromosomes do recombine with each other. Today we know that the Y chromosome degeneration occurs due to its lack of recombination. In this work we show an alternative explanation for the Y chromosome degeneration. Even in the absence of recombination and when the same number and intensity of mutations are applied on the X and Y-chromosomes, more mutations are accumulated in the Y chromosome. We conclude that natural selection leads to Y chromosome degeneration.

Entre le XIème et le XVIème siècle, la Mer des Indes fut le théâtre de nombreux mouvements populationnels aux fins essentiellement commerciales ou coloniales. Madagascar se trouve à la croisée des mondes asiatiques et africains. La côte sud-est malgache a vu l'arrivée de plusieurs migrations : la dernière, probablement vers la fin du XVème siècle, serait celle des Antemoro dont une partie d'entre eux se réclame d'une origine arabe et se rattache à La Mecque. L'éthnie des Antemoro a fait l'objet de nombreuses études anthropologiques et linguistiques. Néanmoins, le débat sur l'origine des migrants fait toujours l'objet d'hypothèses contradictoires. Leurs origines génétiques pourraient ainsi être l'Arabie, l'Afrique de l'Est, l'Inde ou encore l'Asie du Sud-Est à une époque où ces régions étaient déjà islamisées. Ce travail a consisté à étudier la diversité génétique d'une population Antemoro afin d'apporter des éléments de réponse à la question de leur origine biologique. Ce projet interdisciplinaire a pour objectif de mettre en relation l'anthropologie culturelle et sociale avec l'anthropologie biologique. Le polymorphisme du chromosome Y a été étudié afin de rechercher les origines des lignées paternelles par l'analyse de 17 marqueurs microsatellites ainsi que des mutations ponctuelles de l'ADN de la partie non recombinante du chromosome Y. De même, la variabilité génétique des lignées maternelles a été analysée par séquençage des régions hypervariables I et II de l'ADN mitochondrial, et par la définition de polymorphismes bialléliques dans sa région codante. Nous avons mis en évidence la présence de deux haplogroupes du chromosome Y chez certains groupes Antemoro, qui les différencient de la diversité habituellement rencontrée dans les populations malgaches. Bien que la majeure partie des Antemoro entre dans la diversité observée en Afrique sub-Saharienne et en Asie du Sud-Est, quelques haplotypes, des lignées paternelles, les lieraient au Moyen-Orient. Les lignées maternelles, quant à elles, ne les différencient pas de celles des autres populations malgaches. L'isolat génétique formé par certaines « pseudo-castes » Antemoro confirme bien l'isolat culturel. Ce travail apporte une nouvelle vision de la diversité génétique humaine à Madagascar. / Between the 11th and 16th century, the Indian Ocean was the scene of many population movements notably for commercial and colonial purposes. Madagascar is located at the crossroads of the Asian and African continents. Several migrations have occurred in this region; the last one during the late 15th century involved the Antemoro population who claimed an Arabian origin in Mecca. Many anthropological and linguistic studies have been carried out on this ethnic group, but the origin of these migrants remains contentious. It is uncertain whether their origins were in Arabia, East Africa, India or Southeast Asia, when these regions were Islamized. In this study we assessed the genetic diversity of an Antemoro population from villages between Manakara and Vohipeno, to determine their biological origin. The aim of our interdisciplinary study was to link cultural and social anthropology with biological anthropology. Y-chromosome polymorphisms were studied by analyzing 17 microsatellites markers and some SNPs in the non-recombining region of the Y-chromosome to determine the biological origins of the paternal lineages. In addition, genetic variability of maternal lineages was analyzed by sequencing hypervariables regions I and II, and by defining bi-allelic polymorphisms in the coding region of mitochondrial DNA. We found two Y-chromosome haplogroups in some Antemoro groups that differentiated them from the typical genetic variability found in other Malagasy populations. Although most of the Antemoro showed a genetic diversity similar to that observed in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia, few haplotypes associated to paternal lineages linked them to the Middle East. Maternal lineages did not differ from those found in other Malagasy populations. The genetic isolate formed by some Antemoro groups confirmed their cultural isolation. This study provides a new view of the human genetic diversity in Madagascar.

A infertilidade afeta aproximadamente 15% dos casais, sendo atualmente reconhecido o envolvimento de fatores masculinos em metade dos casos. Alterações nas análises seminais são detectadas na maioria dos homens inférteis e a mais frequente é a baixa concentração de espermatozoides no ejaculado, conhecida como oligozoospermia. Vários estudos mostram uma forte relação entre fatores genéticos e a infertilidade, incluindo alterações cromossômicas e microdeleções do cromossomo Y, porém as causas da oligozoospermia ainda permanecem obscuras. O desenvolvimento de novas tecnologias de investigação vem possibilitando a detecção de alterações a nível genômico, como mutações e variações no número de cópias (CNVs). O presente trabalho teve por objetivo a caracterização genômica de homens com oligozoospermia sem causa definida, visando estabelecer correlação entre alterações no número de cópias e perdas de heterozigosidade (LOHs) e o fenótipo de infertilidade. Foram selecionados 18 pacientes após rigorosa avaliação clínica e investigação do histórico reprodutivo, sendo excluídos pacientes portadores de alterações cromossômicas e portadores de microdeleções do cromossomo Y. Seis homens comprovadamente férteis foram selecionados para o grupo controle. A investigação genômica de ambos os grupos, amostral e controle, foi realizada pela técnica de hibridação genômica comparativa em microarranjos (aCGH) utilizando a plataforma de resolução 180K (Agilent®,US), analisada pelo software Nexus 8.0. Foram detectadas alterações possivelmente patogênicas no cromossomo Y, no cromossomo X e em autossomos. Um ganho na região de AZFc envolvendo apenas os genes DAZ1 e DAZ4 foi detectado em nove pacientes e em quatro controles, sendo classificado como alteração benigna. Porém, alterações na região de AZFc possivelmente relacionadas ao fenótipo de oligozoospermia foram detectadas em três pacientes e incluíram extensas duplicações e deleções envolvendo, entre outros genes, as quatro cópias do gene DAZ. Após comparação de regiões selecionadas com a literatura e com diferentes bancos de dados genéticos, sugerimos que os genes PLEC, SPATC1, COL1A1, MOV10L1, SYCE3 e ODF3B possam estar associados a alterações na produção espermática. Adicionalmente, entre os doze miRNAs presentes em regiões de LOH possivelmente relacionadas ao fenótipo de infertilidade, dez têm como alvo genes com funções relacionadas à espermatogênese e reprodução humana. Estudos adicionais a nível de expressão e sequenciamento gênico são necessários para confirmar a correlação entre o genótipo e o fenótipo de oligozoospermia. / Infertility affects about 15% of the couples, and it is currently recognized, that male factors are involved in about 50% of cases. Changes in seminal parameters are detected in most infertile men and the most common alteration, known as oligozoospermia, is a low concentration of sperm in the ejaculate. Several studies show a strong relationship between genetic factors and infertility, including chromosomal abnormalities and microdeletions of Y chromosome, however, the causes of oligozoospermia remain unclear. The development of new research technologies has allowed the detection of changes at genomic levels, such as mutations and copy number variations (CNVs). This study aimed to perform a genomic characterization of patients with idiopathic oligozoospermia to determine whether there is a correlation between changes of copy number and losses of heterozygosity (LOHs) in relation to the phenotype of infertility. Eighteen patients were selected for the cases after rigorous clinical examination and investigation of their reproductive history. Patients with chromosomal abnormalities or microdeletions of the Y chromosome were excluded. Six proven fertile men comprised the control group. Genomic investigation of both groups was performed by microarray comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH) using 4X180K platform (Agilent, US) analysed by Nexus 8.0 software. Potential pathogenic changes were detected on Y chromosome, as well as on the X and autosome chromosomes. A gain in AZFc region involving only DAZ1 and DAZ4 genes was detected in nine patients and four controls, and was considered as benign. However, changes in AZFc region, that could be related to the oligozoospermia phenotype were detected in three patients. These changes included extensive duplications and deletions involving the four copies of the DAZ gene together with copy number changes affecting other genes. After comparing the selected regions with the literature and with different databases, we suggest that changes such as LOH affecting PLEC, SPATC1, COL1A1, MOV10L1, SYCE3 and ODF3B genes may influence sperm production. Our analysis indicates that, ten out of the twelve miRNAs present in LOH regions could be involved in the infertility phenotype and could have target genes with functions related to spermatogenesis and human reproduction. Additional studies involving gene sequencing and expression analysis are needed to confirm the the correlation between the genotype and oligozoospermia phenotype.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the power of discrimination and genetic (diversity) parameters in the Y chromosome extended haploytpe markers in populations of Tanzania for forensic and populations studies. Eleven Y chromosome extended haplotype markers were selected for this study, these includes Minimal haplotypes markers i.e. DYS19, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392, DYS393, DYS385a/b, DYS389I/II and two additional markers DYS438 and DYS439. Six populations of Tanzania were investigated under this study. These populations were selected based on the language family categories / Niger Congo (Kuria and Sukuma), Nilo Saharan (Luo and Maasai) and Afro Asiatic (Iraqw and Alagwa).

The dog was the first animal to be domesticated and the process started at least 15 000 years ago. Today it is the most morphologically diverse mammal, with a huge variation in size and shape. Dogs have always been useful to humans in several ways, from being a food source, hunting companion, guard, social companion and lately also a model for scientific research. This thesis describes some of the changes that have occurred in the dog’s genome, both during the domestication process and later through breed creation. To give a more comprehensive view, three genetic systems were studied: maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA, paternally inherited Y chromosome and biparental autosomal chromosomes. I also sequenced complete mitochondrial genomes to view the effect new living conditions might have had on dogs’ genes after domestication. Finally, knowledge of the genetic structure in purebred dogs was used to test analytic methods usable in other species or in natural populations where little information is available. The domestication process appears to have caused a relaxation of the selective constraint in the mitochondrial genome, leading to a faster rate of accumulation of nonsynonymous changes in the mitochondrial genes. Later, the process of breed creation resulted in genetically separated breed groups. Breeds are a result from an unequal contribution of males and females with only a few popular sires contributing and a larger amount of dams. However, modern breeder preferences might lead to disruptive selective forces within breeds, which can result in additional fragmentation of breeds. The increase in linkage disequilibrium that this represents increases the value of purebred dogs as model organisms for the identification and mapping of diseases and traits. Purebred dogs’ potential for these kinds of studies will probably increase the more we know about the dog’s genome.

Προβλήματα υπογονιμότητας αντιμετωπίζει το 15% των ζευγαριών, εκ των οποίων το 40%-50% οφείλεται στον ανδρικό παράγοντα. Περιπτώσεις ανδρικής υπογονιμότητας στις οποίες δεν ανευρίσκεται προφανής αιτιολογικός παράγων, αντιπροσωπεύουν το 15% των περιπτώσεων και αναφέρονται ως περιπτώσεις ιδιοπαθούς υπογονιμότητας. Παλαιότερες αλλά και πιο πρόσφατες πληθυσμιακές μελέτες ανέδειξαν γενετικούς παράγοντες ως υπεύθυνους για τον φαινότυπο ορισμένων περιστατικών ιδιοπαθούς υπογονιμότητας και επομένως η μελέτη του γενετικού υπόβαθρου των ανδρών αυτών μπορεί να συμβάλλει στην διερεύνηση του παθογενετικού μηχανισμού της υπογονιμότητας/στειρότητας που παρουσιάζουν. Ειδικότερα, έχει διαπιστωθεί ότι ελλείμματα στις AZF περιοχές του Υ χρωμοσώματος υπάρχουν σε ένα ποσοστό 2% - 11% των υπογόνιμων ανδρών αυτής της κατηγορίας. Επίσης, σε πολύ πρόσφατη μελέτη προσδιορίστηκε η παρουσία ενός απλού νουκλεοτιδικού πολυμορφισμού SNP G197T που εντοπίζεται στο τέλος του πρώτου εξονίου του γονιδίου της πρωταμίνης-1. Ο πολυμορφισμός αυτός οδηγεί σε αντικατάσταση μιας συντηρημένης αργινίνης από σερίνη στην αμινοξική αλληλουχία της πρωταμίνης-1 (R34S), με ενδεχόμενες συνέπειες στο πακετάρισμα και την ακεραιότητα του DNA στην κεφαλή του σπερματοζωαρίου, γεγονότα, που μπορεί να οδηγήσουν σε ιδιοπαθή υπογονιμότητα. Τα αποτελέσματά μας έδειξαν ότι μόνο 3 από τα 100 άτομα (3%) έφεραν ελλείμματα στο Y χρωμόσωμα, ειδικότερα ένα άτομο με ενδιάμεση ολιγοσπερμία έφερε ελλείμματα στις AZFa και AZFb περιοχές και δυο άτομα με αζωοσπερμία έφεραν ελλείμματα στην AZFc περιοχή. Παράλληλα, o πολυμορφισμός SNP G197T δεν ανευρεθεί σε κανένα δείγμα του εξεταζόμενου πληθυσμού. / Infertility affects 10%-20% of all couples attempting pregnancy, with men responsible in 40%-50% of these cases. Male infertility exhibits no obvious clinical or pathophysiological features in 15% of these cases and it is therefore characterized as idiopathic. Genetic studies have revealed deletions in the AZF regions of Y chromosome, which contain genes involved in spermatogenesis, in 2%-11% of men with idiopathic infertility. Recent studies, also correlate male idiopathic infertility with the presence of an heterozygous SNP (G197T ) at the end of the first exon of protamine-1 (PRM1) gene. This SNP converts one of the highly conserved arginine residue to serine residue (R34S) which can substantially alter both DNA binding and protamine to protamine interaction in the sperm nucleus leading to infertility through defective chromatin packaging in the sperm nucleus. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the frequency of deletions in the AZF regions of Υ chromosome and the contribution of the polymorphism SNP G197T in a local sample of 100 men attending the Urology Clinic of the Patras University Hospital for infertility problems of unknown aetiology. Our results revealed that three of our patients (3%) were found to bear deletions in the AZF regions of the Y chromosome, one patient with intermediate oligospermia had deletions in AZFa and AZFb regions and two patients with azoospermia had deletion in AZFc region. On the other hand, the polymorphism SNP G197T has no distribution to the idiopathic infertility of the population studied.