Multi-metallic aerogels have emerged as a promising unsupported, high surface area-based metal material for different applications in heterogeneous catalysis and electrochemistry. The fabrication of these multi-metallic aerogels is based on a complex gelation process which is characterized by controlled aggregation of metallic nanoparticles to form a macroscopic network structure in aqueous solution. However, achieving structural homogeneity of the multi-metallic aerogels in terms of diameter of the nanochains and chemical composition at the nano- as well as at the macro-scale is still a great challenge. In this paper, we show the characterization of two Pd-Pt aerogels prepared by the two-step gelation method. The structural homogeneity and chemical distribution of both metals (Pd and Pt) inside the aerogels were analyzed using high-resolution (scanning) transmission microscopy (HR(S)TEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectroscopy, and cyclic voltammetry. Based on the microscopic and spectroscopic results, the Pd-Pt aerogels show the presence of Pd/Pt-rich domains inside the long-range framework. It is evident that the initial monometallic features dominate over alloying during the gelation process. Although the same synthetic approach for Pd-Pt aerogels with different atomic ratios was used, we observed that the sizes of these monometallic domains strongly varied between the Pd-rich and Pt-rich aerogels. For instance, the Pd-rich aerogels showed larger clusters with a size range from few nanometers up to several tens of nanometers, while the dimension of the clusters of the Pt-rich aerogels varies from the sub-nanometers to a few nanometers. The presence of the metal clusters strongly influenced the electrochemical robustness of these Pd-Pt aerogels. Electrochemical durability investigations revealed that the aerogels with a high content of Pd are less stable due to the gradual dissolution of the less noble metal in particular inside the Pd-rich domains. A better chemical and structural homogeneity might improve the life-time of the Pd-Pt aerogels under electrochemical conditions. In this work, we provide a better understanding about the structure and chemical distribution of the bimetallic aerogel framework prepared by the two step gelation process.

The assembly of nanostructures into “multi”-dimensional materials is one of the main topics occurring in nanoscience today. It is now possible to produce high quality nanostructures reproducibly but for their further application larger structures that are easier to handle are required. Nevertheless during their assembly their nanometer size and accompanying properties must be maintained. This challenge was addressed in this work. Lead chalcogenides have been chosen as an example system because they are expected to offer great opportunities as thermoelectric materials. Three different ways to achieve assemblies of lead chalcogenide nanostructures were used and the resulting structures characterized with respect to their potential application as thermoelectric material. The first means by which a “multi”-dimensional assembly of lead chalcogenide quantum dots can be produced is the formation of porous structures such as aerogels and xerogels. A procedure, where the addition of an initiator such as oxidizers or incident radiation is unnecessary, is introduced and the formation process studied by absorption spectroscopy. The time-consuming aggregation step could be significantly reduced by employing a slightly elevated temperature during gelation that does not lead to any observable differences within the resulting gel structures. After either supercritical or subcritical drying, highly porous monolithic gel structures can be achieved. During the gel formation the size and the shape of the particles changed and they were directly linked together. Nevertheless the resulting porous structures remain crystalline and size dependent effects of the optical properties could be shown. Gels produced from a mixture of PbS and PbSe QDs show a homogenous distribution of both materials but it is not clear to what extent they form an alloy. Although the particles are directly linked together the resulting porous structures possess a very high resistivity and so it was not possible to characterize the semiconductor aerogels with regard to their thermoelectric properties. To achieve an enhanced conductivity porous structures containing PbS and Au nanoparticles have been produced. As has been seen for the pure semiconductor gels the size of the PbS quantum dots has increased and elongated particles were formed. In contrast to the PbS QDs the Au nanoparticles did not change their size and shape and are unevenly distributed within the PbS network. Through the use of the gold nanoparticles the conductivity could be increased and although the conductivity is still quite small, it was possible to determine Seebeck coefficients near room temperature for a mixed semiconductor-metal gel. The second means by which QD solids could be formed was by the compaction of the QD building blocks into a material that is still nanostructured. Therefore the synthesis of PbS was optimized to achieve sufficient amounts of PbS quantum dots. The ligands used in the synthesis of the QDs unfortunately act as an insulating layer resulting in QD solids with resistivities as high as 2 Gigaohm. For this reason different surface modification strategies were introduced to minimize the interparticle distance and to increase the coupling between the QDs so as to increase the conductivity of the resulting quantum dot solids. One very promising method was the exchange of the initial ligands by shorter ones that can be destroyed at lower temperatures. By such heat treatments the resistivity could be decreased by up to six orders of magnitude. For the pressing of the quantum dots two different compaction methods (SPS and hydraulic pressing) were compared. While the grain growth within the SPS pressed samples is significantly higher the same densification can be achieved by a cold hydraulic pressing as well as by SPS. The densification could be further increased through the use of preheated PbS QDs due to the destruction of the ligands. Samples which had been surface modified with MPA and subsequently thermally treated show the best results with respect to their thermopower and resistivities. Nevertheless the conductivity of the QD solids is still too high for them to be used as efficient thermoelectric materials. The final assembly method does not involve QDs but instead with one dimensional nanowires. Therefore a synthesis was developed that enables the formation of PbS nanowires of different diameters and one that is easy up-scalable. By the use of a less reactive sulfur precursor and an additional surfactant the formation of nuclei is significantly retarded and within an annealing time of two hours nanowires can be formed presumably by an oriented attachment mechanism. Single crystalline nanowires with a diameter of 65-105 nm could be achieved with the longest axes of the nanowires being parallel to [100]. The resulting nanowires were used as building blocks for film formation on glass substrates by an easily implemented method that requires no special equipment. To characterize the films with a view to their possible application as a thermoelectric material, surface modifications of the films were performed to improve the charge transfer in the films and the Seebeck coefficients of the resulting films measured. Therefore the previous approach of using MPA was applied and a subsequent thermal treatment demonstrated very promising results. In addition an crosslinking ligand was used for surface treatment that leads to similar results as was observed for the thermally treated MPA approach. Both approaches lead to an order of magnitude decrease in the resistivity and due to the fewer grain boundaries present in the films composed of nanowires as compared to the QD assemblies the conductivity is significantly higher. The Seebeck coefficient measurements show that the thermal treatment only slightly affects the Seebeck coefficients. Therefore a significantly higher power factor could be achieved for the nanowire films than for the QD solids.

In this paper we present a comparison of aerogels which are dried under different conditions. Of those, most important are the solvent, temperature, and pressure. Criteria of comparison rely mostly on results from analysis of nitrogen adsorption experiments, as well as transmission electron microscopy imaging. Platinum loaded indium oxide aerogels were picked as a model system for this study as they can be used as highly effective heterogeneous catalysts in methanol steam reforming. The compared drying methods include supercritical drying from CO2, supercritical CO2 - ethanol mixture, freeze drying from tert-butanol and ambient conditions drying from acetone and 1-Methoxyheptafluoropropane. High porosities and large specific surface areas can be achieved via supercritical, freeze- and ambient conditions drying, while retaining the original gel morphology in this system for most methods except freeze drying and ambient conditions drying from acetone.

<p>Currently, fossil fuels and nuclear power are our primary energy sources. However, both have critical disadvantages due to the limited supply and the hazard issues. Renewable energy research becomes one of most important research topics in the 21st century. Nanostructured materials show unique electrochemical properties in various energy conversion or storage devices. This dissertation starts with fundamental optical studies of nanomaterials (carbon nanotubes), followed by synthesizing novel nanomaterials for energy conversion (solar cells) and storage (lithium ion batteries) devices. </p><p> (1) There is an on-going debate concerning the ability of double walled carbon nanotubes (DWNTs) to exhibit photoluminescence (PL). We aim to clearly resolve this debate through the study of carefully separated DWNTs using density gradient ultra-centrifugation (DGU). Here, we clearly show that light is emitted from the inner wall of DWNTs. Interestingly, it was found that a very narrow range of diameters of the inner walls of DWNTs is required for photoluminescence (PL) to be observable. All other diameters led to complete PL quenching in DWNTs. (2) Inexpensive dye sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) on flexible plastic substrates have a bright future, but they require low temperature annealing (< 200°C). The method to fabricate low temperature DSSCs should resolve poor electron transfer between titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles (NPs) due to their incomplete contiguity and insulating layer of organic residues from binders in the photoactive film. Here, we have developed uniform CNTs/TiO2 composites for low temperature DSSCs by using modified sol gel method. DSSCs were fabricated to study incorporating functionalized few walled carbon nanotubes (f-FWNTs) effect on TiO2 NPs. Incorporating f-FWNTs can be beneficial for the low temperature annealing process of DSSCs to overcome extremely poor electron transport through TiO2 photoactive film. Incorporating f-FWNTs with TiO2 active layer improves electrons transport in some degree, but this advantage is limited. (3) Conductive fillers, such as amorphous carbon, carbon nanotube and graphene, have been mixed with nanostructured metal oxide materials to improve the performance of electrode materials in energy storage devices. However, ineffective junctions between conductive fillers are limiting the overall conductivity of the electrode. Therefore, we developed a convenient, inexpensive and scalable method for synthesizing hybrid carbon and titanium dioxide (C/TiO2) co-gels and co-aerogels to improve their electrochemical capacity in lithium ions batteries (LIBs). The monolith of the hybrid C/TiO2 co-aerogel can be directly used as active electrodes without the addition of binders. As a result, the capacitance of LIB anodes using the hybrid co-aerogel is significantly improved over current LIBs based on carbon/titanium oxide composite. Other metal oxides could also form co-gels with carbon to improve their potentials in numerous electrochemical, photocatalytic, and photoelectronic devices.</p> / Dissertation

Aerogel materials have had limited utility due to their fragility, geometrical limitations, fabrication costs and protracted fabrication times. The objective of this project was to eliminate these limitations. Native, cross-linked and hybrid aerogel monoliths have been fabricated using a newly developed one-pot method without the need for solvent exchange. The key to this technique is the use of an ethanol–water azeotrope mixture, which contains 4.4% water by volume, as both a gelation and supercritical drying solvent. The small water content allows for drying at temperatures close to the supercritical temperature of the dry solvent, where reactions such as silica dissolution and polymer degradation are negligible. This improvement on conventional fabrication processes is of particular importance since it decreases the total duration of aerogel fabrication from five days to one day. Cross-linked silica aerogel monoliths were fabricated using one-pot hydrolysis-condensation wet chemistry methods as well as a rapid photogelation method. Both native silica and cross-linked aerogel components were made with a minimum dimension of up to 3.6 cm and in customizable shapes. Fabrication of homogeneous aerogels using these methods required a maximum of one day, as demonstrated in this work. Finally, LEDs and Laser irradiation were both used to selectively embed cross-linked aerogel into a larger native silica component to provide reinforcement and/or a surface which can be used for labeling or affixing the aerogel component to another surface.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Chemistry / Kenneth J. Klabunde / Solar energy driven catalytic systems have gained popularity in environmental remediation recently. Various photocatalytic systems have been reported in this regard and most of the photocatalysts are based on well-known semiconducting material, Titanium Dioxide, while some are based on other materials such as Silicon Dioxide and various Zeolites. However, in titania based photocatalysts, titania is actively involved in the catalytic mechanism by absorbing light and generating exitons. Because of this vast popularity of titania in the field of photocatalysis it is believed that photocatalysis mainly occurs via non-localized mechanisms and semiconductors are extremely important. Even though it is still rare, photocatalysis could be localized and possible without use of a semiconductor as well. Thus, to support localized photocatalytic systems, and to compare the activity to titania based systems, degradation of organic air pollutants by nanostructured silica, titania and mixed silica titania systems were studied. New materials were prepared using two different approaches, precipitation technique (xerogel) and aerogel preparation technique. The prepared xerogel samples were doped with both metal (silver) and non-metals (carbon and sulfur) and aerogel samples were loaded with Chromium, Cobalt and Vanadium separately, in order to achieve visible light photocatalytic activity. Characterization studies of the materials were carried out using Nova BET analysis, DR UV-vis spectrometry, powder X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron Spectroscopy, FT-IR spectroscopy, Transmission Electron Microscopy, etc. Kinetics of the catalytic activities was studied using a Shimadzu GCMS-QP 5000 instrument using a closed glass reactor. All the experiments were carried out in gaseous phase using acetaldehyde as the model pollutant. Kinetic results suggest that chromium doped silica systems are good UV and visible light active photocatalysts. This is a good example for a localized photocatalytic activity. In contrast, our xerogel system shows comparatively high visible light photocatalytic activity for the titania based system, showing the importance of non-localized nature of photocatalysis. The Cobalt doped silica system shows interesting dark catalytic activity towards acetaldehyde and several other pollutants. Thus, in summary, based on the different activities we observed during our studies these materials could be successfully used to improve the quality of both indoor and outdoor air.

Rapporten behandlar energieffektivisering av Villa Vidas prefabricerade byggelement. I arbetet undersöks hur och med hjälp av vilka material en effektivisering av elementen kan gå till. I slutet av rapporten presenteras sedan det förslag till varje väggtyp som bedömdes som lämpligast att ersätta respektive standardalternativ med.

Durante la fabricación del biodiesel se obtiene glicerina (o glicerol) como subproducto (10 % en peso del producto total) dando lugar a importantes excedentes. Por tanto, es necesario buscar nuevas vías de transformación de glicerina en productos de alto valor añadido. Una de las reacciones a estudiar es la eterificación de glicerol, en presencia de tert-butanol o isobuteno, para la obtención de los di- y tri-tert-butil éteres de glicerol (h-GTBE), que se pueden utilizar como aditivos oxigenados en combustibles. Por ello, en esta tesis se han preparado, modificado y caracterizado tres zeolitas, una zeolita con porosidad jerarquizada, un aerogel y un liogel de sílice, además de materiales mesoporosos ordenados para su uso como nuevos catalizadores heterogéneos ácidos activos y selectivos hacia la formación de di- y tri-tert-butil éteres de glicerol (h-GTBEs) en la reacción de eterificación de glicerol con tert-butanol o isobuteno. Otro de los objetivos importantes de esta tesis ha sido el estudio del efecto de la radiación microondas (autoclave y reflujo) en la desaluminación de tres zeolitas comerciales. La radiación microondas se ha empleado también en la sulfonación de zeolitas, materiales mesoporosos ordenados, montmorillonita K-10, aerogel y liogel sílice. La incorporación de grupos sulfónicos en estos materiales nos ha permitido obtener elevadas conversiones (100 %) y selectividades hacia los productos de interés (91 %). / There is an increasing interest in searching new processes to transform glycerol (surplus in the biodiesel manufacture) into high-added value products. In addition, the use of microwaves for the synthesis and modification of materials is becoming an important tool to reduce the synthesis time (energy saving). In this thesis, we prepared, modified and characterized three zeolites, a zeolite with hierarchical porosity, an aerogel and a liogel of silica and ordered mesoporous materials to be tested as new heterogeneous catalysts for the glycerol etherification with tert-butanol or isobutene to obtain selectively di- and tri-ethers of glycerol (h-GTBE), which can be used as fuel additives. Other important objective of this thesis was to study the effect of using microwaves during dealumination of three zeolites on their resulting surface and acidic properties and during sulfonation of zeolites, montmorillonite K-10, aerogel, and liogel of silica and ordered mesoporous materials. The incorporation of sulfonic groups into these materials resulted in higher conversion (100 %) and higher selectivity (91 %) to desired products than non-functionalized materials.

Future environmental challenges impose higher demands on energy efficiency of the existing building stock, and require that historically valuable buildings undergo changes to reduce energy use. New materials such as aerogel and eco-fiber can advance the energy efficiency of the existing building stock. Simulations of 16 different exterior wall constructions have been conducted in VIP Energy and WUFI to investigate energy savings and moisture levels. The results show that aerogel Paroc–Spaceloft 10mm lowers U-values in exterior walls by 0,27 W/m2K. The 40mm eco-fiber insulation lowers the U-value by 0,2 and 0,32 W/m2K, respectively. This means that they have the potential to energy efficiently renovate historically valuable buildings. By using the materials for exterior insulation, it is possible to improve the U-value without harming the exterior wall. The use of KC plaster as an exterior plaster has also been simulated. The use of KC plaster resulted in a greatly increased moisture level in the outer walls, as well as an extension of the drying period for the wall itself. However, the simulations show that KC plaster can protect against heavy rain better than the traditional lime plaster as it has a tighter structure.

Les aérogels sont des matériaux légers et mésoporeux très prometteurs en termes d'isolation thermique. Il est vraisemblable qu'ils ont un rôle majeur à jouer dans la réduction des déperditions thermiques à travers les enveloppes de bâtiment et celles des équipements électrodomestiques. Dans ce contexte, l'objectif de ce travail de thèse est de développer un matériau conciliant une conductivité thermique très faible et des propriétés mécaniques compatibles avec une utilisation dans ce secteur applicatif, via un procédé d'hybridation organique-inorganique entre un aérogel de silice superisolant mais fragile et un aérogel de polyuréthane, également très isolant mais plus résistant aux sollicitations mécaniques. Dans une première partie, des aérogels de silice et de polyuréthane très performants ont été chacun élaboré par voie sol-gel en conditions douces dans un milieu réactionnel composé principalement d'acétonitrile, puis séchés au CO2 supercritique et caractérisés en termes de structure, morphologie, texture, conductivité thermique et compression uniaxiale. Un travail sur la formulation de l'aérogel de polyuréthane a permis d'atteindre un compromis thermo-mécanique très satisfaisant (conductivité thermique de 0,018 W.m-1.K-1, module élastique de 7,8 MPa) . Les matrices minérales et organiques ont ensuite été couplées, tout d'abord sous forme de composites (0,018 W.m-1.K-1, 6,1 MPa) à partir d'un lit granulaire de silice sèche. Un procédé d'hybridation a été mis en œuvre entre les matrices de silice et de polyuréthane, comportant deux étapes successives de fonctionnalisation de la matrice de silice (co-condensation puis greffage de surface et croissance contrôlée d'un réseau organique secondaire). L'étude de l'hybride obtenu par des observations MEB et XPS a été initiée et a montré l'existence d'une interface présentant une forte cohésion entre les deux matrices. / Aerogels are light and mesoporous materials that appear very promising in terms of thermal insulation. They could play a great part in the future in the reduction of thermal losses through building and appliances envelopes. In this context, the goal of this thesis work is the development of a material combining a very low thermal conductivity and mechanical properties that are compatible with a use in this application sector, via an organic-inorganic hybridization process between a superinsulating - but fragile - silica aerogel, and a very insulating polyurethane aerogel with higher resistance to mechanical stress. In the first part, high performance silica and polyurethane aerogels have each been synthetized via a sol-gel route in mild conditions and in a reaction medium mainly consisting in acetonitrile, then dried in supercritical CO2, and characterized in terms of structure, morphology, texture, thermal conductivity and uniaxial compression. A work on the polyurethane aerogel formulation led to improved thermo-mechanical compromise (thermal conductivity 0.018 W.m-1.K-1, elastic modulus 7.8 MPa) . The mineral and organic matrixes were then coupled, at first in the form of composites (0.018 W.m-1.K-1, 6.1 MPa) based on a dry granular silica aerogel bead. An hybridization process was implemented between the silica and polyurethane phases, that included two successive steps of functionalization of the silica matrix (co-condensation followed by surface grafting and controlled growth of a secondary organic network). The obtained hybrid study was initiated via SEM and XPS analysis and showed a good cohesion at the interface between the polyurethane and the modified silica matrixes.