Prominin-1 is a lipid raft–associated, cholesterol-binding membrane glycoprotein selectively associated with plasma membrane protrusions and extracellular vesicles derived therefrom. Despite its worldwide use for stem cell isolation and its clinical importance in cancer-initiating cells and photoreceptor morphogenesis the function of prominin-1 remains elusive. This prompted me to investigate its role in the architecture and dynamics of microvilli and primary cilia at the apical plasma membrane of Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. Therefore, stably transfected cell lines were established expressing human prominin-1 splice variant 1 or 2. Upon the overexpression of prominin-1 the number of individual microvilli and clusters of them increased significantly. I also noticed alterations in their architecture, i.e. branching microvilli. Fascinatingly, two point mutations (Pro37→Ala and Tyr41→Ser) in the ganglioside GM1-binding motif of prominin-1 increased the number of branched microvilli and generated irregular ones with knob-like structures at their tip. Additionally, the release of prominin-1+ vesicles was impaired. Interestingly, both phenotypes were suppressed by the inhibition of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) or the Arp2/3 complex. Impaired interaction of prominin-1 with the PI3K through the introduction of an additional mutation (Tyr828→Phe) in its PI3K-binding site also reduced the amount of structurally altered microvilli. Thus, the interaction of prominin-1 with the PI3K may drive the conversion of the docking phospholipid phosphatidylinositol(4,5)-bisphosphate into phosphatidylinositol(3,4,5)-trisphosphate resulting in the uncoupling of the microvillar membrane from the underlying actin filaments thereby creating irregular/knob-like microvilli. Simultaneously, the phospholipid conversion might modulate the activity of regulators and/or activators of the Arp2/3 complex leading to the branching of microvilli. The overexpression of human prominin-1 also increased the length of primary cilia. Remarkably, a mutation in the histone deacetylase 6-binding site that mimics acetylation produces shorter cilia in cells expressing human prominin-1.s2. Additionally, it stimulates membrane vesicle release and dome formation. Above these striking observations, I observed branching cilia and cilia with a pearling shape. Collectively, the data suggest that a complex interplay of prominin-1 with its lipid and protein interaction partners regulates the architecture and dynamics of cellular protrusions. Finally, a growing number of studies use canine prominin-1 as an antigenic marker despite the absence of specific antibodies. Studies investigating its expression in dog tissues or cells derived therefrom rely on antibodies directed against its human and murine orthologs. To determine its cross-species immunoreactivity I cloned canine prominin-1 and overexpressed it as a green fluorescent protein fusion protein in MDCK cells. Here, I show that the genomic structure of the canine prom1 gene is similar to that of human and mouse. Canine prominin-1 shows the common characteristics of the prominin-1 family but the primary structure is poorly conserved. Like human and mouse protein, it is targeted to the apical membrane of MDCK cells and specifically enriched in microvilli and primary cilia. Immunocytochemistry, flow cytometry and immunoblotting techniques revealed that none of the applied antibodies against human or mouse prominin-1 recognizes the canine protein.

La migration cellulaire possède deux volets antagonistes ; nécessaire à plusieurs processus physiologiques tels que la réponse immunitaire, elle peut également induire la mort d’un organisme en permettant les cellules cancéreuses d’envahir des organes sains. In vivo, la migration s’effectue dans des milieux complexes et confinés qui imposent une forte déformabilité aux cellules migratoires. Récemment, divers études ont montré que le noyau impose la limite de la déformabilité cellulaire lors de la migration en 3D (Wolf et al. JCB, 2013; Harada et al. JCB, 2013). Il a, en effet, été montré que la migration cellulaire peut être augmentée en diminuant la rigidité nucléaire (Wolf et al. JCB, 2013). Cependant, il existe une limite de rigidité nucléaire en dessous de laquelle la migration cellulaire peut être inhibée via l’inhibition de la survie cellulaire (Harada et al. JCB, 2013). Les cellules cancéreuses qui migrent à des vitesses relativement faibles (µm/heure) et ont des noyaux rigides surmontent la limite imposée par la déformation nucléaire en dégradant et élargissant le milieu extracellulaire. Les cellules immunitaires telles que les neutrophiles qui migrent rapidement (10 µm/mn) et ont des noyaux mous sont connus pour mourir aux sites d’infections. Les cellules dendritiques, de la famille des cellules immunitaires, ont une fonction de présentation d’antigènes qui requiert à la fois une grande capacité migratoire et de survie. Elles représentent donc un modèle cellulaire intéressant pour l’étude de la déformation nucléaire chez les cellules qui migrent rapidement et survivent longtemps. Durant mon doctorat, j’ai étudié le mécanisme grâce auquel les cellules dendritiques déforment leurs noyaux afin de migrer de manière efficace en milieux confinés tout en préservant un haut taux de survie. J’ai utilisé un système expérimental nouveau et original consistant en des microcannaux avec des constrictions (Heuzé et al. MMB, 2011). Ces canaux, combinés à des manipulations génétiques et de la video microscopie nous ont permis de montré que les cellules dendritiques possèdent un mécanisme spécifique, indépendant de celui utilisé pour leur migration, leur permettant de déformer leurs noyaux tout en migrant dans des milieux hautement confinés. Ce mécanisme est basé sur la génération d’un réseau d’actin, autour du noyau, nucléé par Arp2/3 et indépendant du moteur Myosin II. Ce réseau d’actine co-localise avec des sites de rupture de la Lamin A/C. De plus, réduire la quantité de Lamin A/C dans les cellules dendritiques inhibe la formation de ce réseau d’actin perinucléaire. Basés sur ces résultats, nous avons proposé un nouveau mécanisme de déformation du noyau lors de la migration en milieux confinés basé sur Arp2/3 qui, en nucléant un réseau d’actine autour du noyau permet de casser la lamin A/C diminuant ainsi la tension de surface nucléaire et permettant le passage noyau. / Cell migration has two opposite faces; necessary for many physiological processes such as immune response, it can also lead to the organism death by allowing metastatic cells to invade new organs. In vivo migration often occurs in complex 3D environments which impose high cellular deformability. Recently, cellular deformability during 3D migration has been shown to be limited by the nucleus (Wolf et al. JCB, 2013). For instance, cell migration can be increased by decreasing nuclear stiffness. However, below a given nuclear stiffness 3D cell migration can be reduced as a result of impaired cell survival (Harada et al. JCB, 2014). Cancer cells which display slow migration and have rather stiff nuclei have been shown to overcome the physical limits of 3D migration through adhesion combined to matrix degradation or high actomyosin contraction (Wolf et al. JCB, 2013). Immune cells such as neutrophils which are fast moving cells with soft nuclei have been reported to die at sites of infection. Interestingly, dendritic cells function as antigen presenting cells requires high migratory ability as well as high survival. They thus constitute an interesting model for studying nuclear deformation in fast moving and long lived cells. During my PhD, I studied the mechanism by which dendritic cells deform their nuclei to achieve proper migration in highly confining space while preserving a high survival rate. I used an original micro fabricated experimental set up (Heuzé et al. MMB, 2011) consisting of microchannels with constrictions to mimic cellular transmigration. Those channels combined with genetic manipulation and live cell imaging followed by image processing were used to assess the mechanism dendritic cells use to deform their nucleus, which we found to be specific and not required for cell motility per se. I showed that dendritic cells overcome the physical limitation imposed by nuclear deformation through small gaps by nucleating an Arp2/3 based actin network around the nucleus. Surprisingly, the formation of this actin network is independent of myosin II based contraction. This actin accumulation around the nucleus co-localized with sites of nuclear Lamin A/C breakage. Moreover, Lamin A/C depletion in dendritic cells leads to the disappearance of this actin ring and the release of the need for Arp2/3 for nuclear deformation. We thus propose a new mechanism of nuclear squeezing through narrow gaps based on an Arp2/3 nucleated actin meshwork which, by transiently breaking the Lamin A/C network, releases the nuclear surface tension and allows nuclear thus cell passage through micrometric constrictions. Lamin A/C repolymerization around the nucleus at the exit of constrictions would then restore nuclear stiffness, allowing cell survival. Interestingly, this actin accumulation around the nucleus was also observed in vivo in migrating macrophages but not in HL-60 derived neutrophils. Taken together, our data suggest that the Arp2/3 based nuclear squeezing mechanism would be a general feature of highly migratory cells which need to survive long enough to accomplish their functions.

Dans une cellule en migration, la polymérisation d'actine permet de projeter la membrane plasmique dans une structure appelée le lamellipode. Dans le lamellipode, l'actine est polymérisée de manière branchée par le complexe Arp2/3. L'activation du complexe Arp2/3 au lamellipode est sous le contrôle du complexe WAVE. En réponse à une cascade d’activation moléculaire, une des sous-unités du complexe WAVE expose son domaine WCA (WH2-Connecteur-Acide) qui peut alors se lier au complexe Arp2/3 et l’activer afin d'initier la formation d’un nouveau filament d’actine. La voie d’activation du complexe Arp2/3 par le complexe WAVE a été bien étudiée. Cependant la migration cellulaire est finement régulée et cette unique voie de signalisation nous semblait insuffisante. Dans le but de trouver de nouveaux régulateurs de la migration et en particulier de nouvelles protéines se liant au complexe Arp2/3, nous avons réalisé un crible bioinformatique identifiant les protéines contenant un motif Acide. Ce dernier a abouti à l’identification d’une protéine non caractérisée. In vitro, cette protéine n'active pas le complexe Arp2/3. En revanche, elle est capable d'inhiber l'activation du complexe Arp2/3 induite par le domaine WCA d'un activateur et empêche la formation de branches par le complexe Arp2/3. Nous avons appelé cette nouvelle protéine Arpin pour « Arp2/3 Inhibitor ». De manière cohérente avec son rôle inhibiteur in vitro, la déplétion d'Arpin dans différents type de cellules, induit une augmentation de la vitesse de protrusion des lamellipodes et une demi-vie augmentée des lamellipodes. Ces effets se traduisent par une migration plus rapide et plus persistante en direction. Arpin joue donc le rôle d'un frein de la migration cellulaire et permet à la cellule de tourner. Pour jouer ce rôle-là, Arpin nécessite d’être régulée rigoureusement. Dans la cellule, Arpin est inactive et nécessite d’être activée par Rac. Cependant cette régulation n'est probablement pas directe. Pour mieux comprendre la régulation d'Arpin, nous avons donc recherché des protéines partenaires. Nous avons identifié Tankyrase comme protéine interagissant avec Arpin. De façon significative, le motif d’Arpin qui permet son interaction avec Tankyrase se superpose à la séquence Acide nécessaire à son interaction avec le complexe Arp2/3. Nous avons mis en évidence in vitro une compétition entre Tankyrase et le complexe Arp2/3 sur Arpin. Ces résultats suggèrent Tankyrase inhibe la protéine inhibitrice Arpin. En conclusion, nous avons découvert une nouvelle protéine Arpin, qui inhibe le complexe Arp2/3 et qui joue un rôle régulateur important dans la migration cellulaire. Nous avons identifié une protéine régulatrice de son activité, la Tankyrase. Nous nous attendons à ce qu’Arpin soit impliquée dans des nombreux processus physiologiques ou pathologiques, où la migration cellulaire joue un rôle important, en particulier lors de la formation de métastases dans le cancer. / In migrating cells, the Arp2/3 complex generates branched actin networks that power protrusion of the leading edge in a structure called lamellipodium. The Arp2/3 complex is activated at the leading edge by the Wave complex which is itself activated by the small GTPase Rac. WAVE which is in an inactive state, then exposes its WCA domain (WH2-Connector-Acidic) that can bind to the Arp2/3 complex and activate it to trigger the formation of a new daughter actin filament. This signalling pathway of the Arp2/3 complex has been well studied. However, cell migration is a fine-tuned process that is probably regulated in a more complex manner.To identify new regulators of cell migration, especially proteins that bind to the Arp2/3 complex, we performed a bioinformatics screen to identify proteins containing an acidic motif at its C-terminus, a characteristic motif of Arp2/3 activators. By this method we retrieved an uncharacterized protein. A combination of in vitro assays revealed, however, that this protein inhibits the Arp2/3 complex by competing with the activators. We called this protein Arpin for “Arp2/3 inhibitor”. Depletion of Arpin in different kind of cells, such as mammalian cells or amoeba, induces lamellipodia to protrude faster and to last longer, consistent with its inhibitory role on Arp2/3 complex activity. These effects observed lead to an increased velocity and a more directional migration in random migration assay. The function of the Arp2/3 inhibitory protein Arpin is thus to slow down and steer cell migration.In the cell, Arpin has been shown to be inactive until it is activated by Rac, most likely by an indirect manner. We identified Tankyrase as an interactor of Arpin. Interestingly, the binding motif of Arpin to Tankyrase overlaps the acidic motif required for the binding to the Arp2/3 complex. By a biochemistry approach, we showed a competition between Tankyrase and the Arp2/3 complex for the binding to Arpin. This observation suggests that Tankyrase inhibits the inhibitory protein Arpin in the cell. To conclude, we identified a new protein, Arpin which inhibits the Arp2/3 complex and plays an important role in the control of cell migration. We identified a protein which regulated its activity, Tankyrase. Thus, we can imagine that Arpin could be implicated in numerous physiological and pathological processes where cell migration is involved, particularly during metastases formation in cancer

La motilité cellulaire est un processus intégré essentiel à de nombreux phénomènes physiologiques tels que la formation du cône de croissance et la plasticité synaptique. Des dérégulations de la motilité cellulaire peuvent être à l’origine de la formation de métastases ou de pathologies neuropsychiatriques comme la schizophrénie et l'autisme. La compréhension des mécanismes régulant la migration cellulaire est donc un enjeu majeur. La motilité cellulaire repose sur la formation de diverses structures constituées de réseaux d’actine branchés telles que le lamellipode. La formation du lamellipode nécessite l’intervention de protéines régulatrices de l’actine telles que Rac1 et les complexes Wave et Arp2/3. Grâce à l’utilisation de suivi de protéine unique, nous avons pu comprendre comment la coordination spatio-temporelle de ces régulateurs contrôle la formation et la morphologie des lamellipodes de cellules migrantes. Nous avons ainsi découvert que l’activation et la localisation du complexe Wave étaient régulées de manière enzymatique mais également mécanique. Dans une première étude, nous avons montré que la RhoGTPase Rac1 active le complexe Wave spécifiquement à l’extrémité du lamellipode. Dans une seconde étude, nous avons révélé que la localisation du complexe Wave est régulée par la dynamique des filaments des réseaux branchés d’actine. Ces données soulignent l’importance du complexe Wave dans la formation du lamellipode et révèlent l’existence d’une régulation mécanique de la localisation du complexe Wave. / Cell motility is an integrated process involved in critical phenomena such as axonal pathfinding and synaptic plasticity. Dysregulation of cell motility can induce metastasis and abnormal spine shapes observed in neuropsychiatric disorders like autism and schizophrenia. Therefore it is essential to understand how cell motility is regulated. Cell motility requires the formation of branched actin networks propelled by actin polymerization that lead to the formation of membrane protrusions such as the lamellipodium. Several actin regulatory proteins are involved in this process, such as Rac1 and the WAVE and ARP2/3 complexes. Using single protein tracking, we revealed key phenomena concerning the spatio-temporal regulation of lamellipodium formation by actin regulatory proteins. We found that the localization and activation of the WAVE complex was enzymatically regulated, but also mechanically. First, we showed that the Rac1 RhoGTPase activates the WAVE complex specifically at the tip of the lamellipodium. We also showed that WAVE complex localization is regulated by the dynamics of branched-network actin filaments. This study confirms the crucial role of the WAVE complex in lamellipodium formation and reveals the existence of a mechanical regulation of the localization of this complex in the cell.

Prominin-1 is a lipid raft–associated, cholesterol-binding membrane glycoprotein selectively associated with plasma membrane protrusions and extracellular vesicles derived therefrom. Despite its worldwide use for stem cell isolation and its clinical importance in cancer-initiating cells and photoreceptor morphogenesis the function of prominin-1 remains elusive. This prompted me to investigate its role in the architecture and dynamics of microvilli and primary cilia at the apical plasma membrane of Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. Therefore, stably transfected cell lines were established expressing human prominin-1 splice variant 1 or 2. Upon the overexpression of prominin-1 the number of individual microvilli and clusters of them increased significantly. I also noticed alterations in their architecture, i.e. branching microvilli. Fascinatingly, two point mutations (Pro37→Ala and Tyr41→Ser) in the ganglioside GM1-binding motif of prominin-1 increased the number of branched microvilli and generated irregular ones with knob-like structures at their tip. Additionally, the release of prominin-1+ vesicles was impaired. Interestingly, both phenotypes were suppressed by the inhibition of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) or the Arp2/3 complex. Impaired interaction of prominin-1 with the PI3K through the introduction of an additional mutation (Tyr828→Phe) in its PI3K-binding site also reduced the amount of structurally altered microvilli. Thus, the interaction of prominin-1 with the PI3K may drive the conversion of the docking phospholipid phosphatidylinositol(4,5)-bisphosphate into phosphatidylinositol(3,4,5)-trisphosphate resulting in the uncoupling of the microvillar membrane from the underlying actin filaments thereby creating irregular/knob-like microvilli. Simultaneously, the phospholipid conversion might modulate the activity of regulators and/or activators of the Arp2/3 complex leading to the branching of microvilli. The overexpression of human prominin-1 also increased the length of primary cilia. Remarkably, a mutation in the histone deacetylase 6-binding site that mimics acetylation produces shorter cilia in cells expressing human prominin-1.s2. Additionally, it stimulates membrane vesicle release and dome formation. Above these striking observations, I observed branching cilia and cilia with a pearling shape. Collectively, the data suggest that a complex interplay of prominin-1 with its lipid and protein interaction partners regulates the architecture and dynamics of cellular protrusions. Finally, a growing number of studies use canine prominin-1 as an antigenic marker despite the absence of specific antibodies. Studies investigating its expression in dog tissues or cells derived therefrom rely on antibodies directed against its human and murine orthologs. To determine its cross-species immunoreactivity I cloned canine prominin-1 and overexpressed it as a green fluorescent protein fusion protein in MDCK cells. Here, I show that the genomic structure of the canine prom1 gene is similar to that of human and mouse. Canine prominin-1 shows the common characteristics of the prominin-1 family but the primary structure is poorly conserved. Like human and mouse protein, it is targeted to the apical membrane of MDCK cells and specifically enriched in microvilli and primary cilia. Immunocytochemistry, flow cytometry and immunoblotting techniques revealed that none of the applied antibodies against human or mouse prominin-1 recognizes the canine protein.

Hearing requires proper function of the auditory hair cell, which is critically dependent upon its actin-based cytoskeletal structure. Eleven point mutations in gamma (γ) nonmuscle actin have been identified as causing progressive autosomal dominant nonsyndromic hearing loss (DFNA20/26); however, exactly why these mutations lead to deafness is unclear. Organization, stability, and repair of the hair cell cytoskeleton are highly regulated by actin binding proteins (ABPs), and two of the mutations, K118M and K118N, are located near an area of the actin monomer believed to be important in actin-ABP interactions. A third mutation, D51N, is located in a region of the actin monomer believed to be important for polymerization dynamics and stability in filamentous actin. I therefore hypothesized that the K118M/N mutations cause hearing loss due to impaired regulation of the actin cytoskeleton within the hair cell, whereas the D51N mutation likely interferes with polymerization dynamics and actin filament stability or flexibility. The goal of my thesis was to investigate the effects of these three mutations, K118M, K118N, and D51N, on actin dynamics and regulation. I show in Chapter 2 that the K118M/N mutations differentially affect regulation of actin by the Arp2/3 complex, but also, surprisingly, that the K118N mutation accelerates polymerization dynamics. Chapter 3 details a continued investigation of the K118M/N mutations to ascertain their effects on actin structure and dynamics, particularly with regard to how they may affect polymerization. Chapter 4 provides both an in vivo and in vitro characterization of the D51N mutation, which revealed that not only does the mutation significantly accelerate actin polymerization, it also causes significant effects on yeast mitochondrial morphology and cytoskeletal regulation. The work detailed within this thesis provides new insight into how the K118M/N and D51N mutations affect actin structure and dynamics and how these effects could lead to deafness. More importantly, this work provides a strong foundation for many future studies, ranging from structural investigation of the K118N and D51N actins as F-actin mimics, to the potential role of mitochondria in actin-based disease.

Le complexe Scar/WAVE génère la formation des lamellipodes par l'intermédiaire du complexe Arp2/3 responsable de la polymérisation de réseaux d'actine branchés. Dans le but d'identifier de nouveaux régulateurs du complexe Scar/WAVE, nous avons conduit un crible en cellules de Drosophiles combinant une approche protéomique à une approche de génomique fonctionnelle. La chaîne lourde de la clathrine a été identifiée au cours de ce crible comme une protéine interagissant avec le complexe Scar/WAVE et dont la déplétion affecte la formation des lamellipodes. Ce rôle de la clathrine dans la formation des lamellipodes peut être découplé de son rôle classique dans le transport vésiculaire en utilisant différentes approches. De plus, la clathrine est localisée au lamellipode en l'absence d'adapteurs et des protéines accessoires de l'endocytose. La surexpression de la clathrine affecte le recrutement membranaire du complexe WAVE réduisant ainsi la vélocité des protrusions membranaire et la migration cellulaire. Par opposition, lorsque la clathrine est envoyée artificiellement à la membrane plasmique par une fusion à une séquence myristoylée, on observe une augmentation du recrutement membranaire du complexe Scar/WAVE, de la vélocité des protrusions membranaires et de la migration cellulaire. L'ensemble de ces résultats montrent que la clathrine envoie le complexe Scar/WAVE à la membrane plasmique et donc contrôle la formation des lamellipodes en plus de son rôle plus classique dans le traffic membranaire.

<p>Small GTP-binding proteins are molecular switches that serve as important regulators of numerous cellular processes. In animal and plant cells, the Rho family of small GTPases participate in e.g. organisation of the actin cytoskeleton, production of reactive oxygen species through the NADPH oxidase complex, regulation of gene expression. The three most extensively studied subgroups of the Rho GTPase family are Cdc42, Rho and Rac. One of the mechanisms by which animal Rac and Cdc42 GTPases regulate actin filament organisation is through activation of the ARP2/3 complex, a multimeric protein complex which induces branching and nucleation/elongation/polymerisation of actin filaments. Activation of the ARP2/3 complex by Rac and Cdc42 is mediated through the proteins WAVE and WASP, respectively.</p><p>In a search for Ras-like GTPases in Arabidopsis, we identified a family of genes with similarity to Rac GTPases. Screens of cDNA and genomic libraries resulted in the finding of 11 genes named ARACs/AtRACs. Genes encoding Rho, Cdc42 or Ras homologues were not identified. Expression analysis of AtRAC1 to AtRAC5 indicated that AtRAC1, AtRAC3, AtRAC4 and AtRAC5 are expressed in all parts of the plant, whereas AtRAC2 is preferentially expressed in root, hypocotyl and stem.</p><p>The AtRAC gene family can be divided into two main groups based on sequence similarity, gene structure and post-translational modification. AtRAC group II genes contain an additional exon, caused by the insertion of an intron which disrupts the C-terminal geranylgeranylation motif. Instead, group II AtRACs contain a putative motif for palmitoylation. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that the division of plant RACs into group I and group II occurred before the split of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants. Analyses of the genes neighbouring AtRAC genes revealed that several of the plant RAC genes have been created through duplications.</p><p>The restricted/tissue-specific expression pattern of AtRAC2 led us to do a more detailed expression analysis of this gene. A 1.3 kb fragment of the upstream (regulatory) sequence of AtRAC2 directed expression of GUS or GFP to developing primary xylem in root, hypocotyl, leaves and stem. In root tips, the onset GUS staining or GFP fluorescence regulated by the AtRAC2 promoter slighty preceded the appearance of secondary cell walls. In stems, GUS staining coincided with thickening of xylem cell walls. Transgenic plants expressing constitutively active AtRAC2 displayed defects in the polar growth of leaf epidermal cells, indicating that AtRAC2 may be able to regulate the actin cytoskeleton. Surprisingly, an AtRAC2 T-DNA insertion mutant did not show any observable phenotypes. GFP fusion proteins of wild type and constitutively active AtRAC2 were both localised to the plasma membrane. The data suggest that AtRAC2 is involved in development of xylem vessels, likely through regulation of the actin cytoskeleton or NADPH oxidase.</p><p>The role of RAC GTPases in regulation of the actin cytoskeleton in plants is well documented. However, although the ARP2/3 complex had been identified in plants/Arabidopsis, the mechanisms regulating this complex were unknown. Through database searches, we identified three Arabidopsis genes, AtBRK1, AtNAP and AtPIR, which encoded proteins with similarity to subunits of a protein complex shown to regulate the activity of WAVE1 in mammalian cells. T-DNA inactivation mutants of AtNAP and AtPIR displayed morphological defects on epidermal cells undergoing polar expansion, such as trichomes and leaf pavement cells. The phenotypes were similar to those observed for ARP2/3 complex mutants, suggesting that AtNAP and AtPIR act in the same pathway as the ARP2/3 complex in plants. The actin cytoskeleton in atnap and atpir mutants was less branched than in wild type plants; instead, actin filaments aggregated in thick actin bundles.</p><p>Finally, we have recently discovered a small gene family encoding putative WAVE homologues. In mammalian cells, Rac activates WAVE1 through binding to PIR121 or Sra1 (the mammalian homologues of AtPIR). The discovery of a putative WAVE regulatory complex as well as putative WAVE homologues in Arabidopsis suggests that plant RAC GTPases regulate organisation of the actin cytoskeleton during polar growth at least partly through the ARP2/3 complex, using an evolutionarily conserved mechanism.</p>

Small GTP-binding proteins are molecular switches that serve as important regulators of numerous cellular processes. In animal and plant cells, the Rho family of small GTPases participate in e.g. organisation of the actin cytoskeleton, production of reactive oxygen species through the NADPH oxidase complex, regulation of gene expression. The three most extensively studied subgroups of the Rho GTPase family are Cdc42, Rho and Rac. One of the mechanisms by which animal Rac and Cdc42 GTPases regulate actin filament organisation is through activation of the ARP2/3 complex, a multimeric protein complex which induces branching and nucleation/elongation/polymerisation of actin filaments. Activation of the ARP2/3 complex by Rac and Cdc42 is mediated through the proteins WAVE and WASP, respectively. In a search for Ras-like GTPases in Arabidopsis, we identified a family of genes with similarity to Rac GTPases. Screens of cDNA and genomic libraries resulted in the finding of 11 genes named ARACs/AtRACs. Genes encoding Rho, Cdc42 or Ras homologues were not identified. Expression analysis of AtRAC1 to AtRAC5 indicated that AtRAC1, AtRAC3, AtRAC4 and AtRAC5 are expressed in all parts of the plant, whereas AtRAC2 is preferentially expressed in root, hypocotyl and stem. The AtRAC gene family can be divided into two main groups based on sequence similarity, gene structure and post-translational modification. AtRAC group II genes contain an additional exon, caused by the insertion of an intron which disrupts the C-terminal geranylgeranylation motif. Instead, group II AtRACs contain a putative motif for palmitoylation. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that the division of plant RACs into group I and group II occurred before the split of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants. Analyses of the genes neighbouring AtRAC genes revealed that several of the plant RAC genes have been created through duplications. The restricted/tissue-specific expression pattern of AtRAC2 led us to do a more detailed expression analysis of this gene. A 1.3 kb fragment of the upstream (regulatory) sequence of AtRAC2 directed expression of GUS or GFP to developing primary xylem in root, hypocotyl, leaves and stem. In root tips, the onset GUS staining or GFP fluorescence regulated by the AtRAC2 promoter slighty preceded the appearance of secondary cell walls. In stems, GUS staining coincided with thickening of xylem cell walls. Transgenic plants expressing constitutively active AtRAC2 displayed defects in the polar growth of leaf epidermal cells, indicating that AtRAC2 may be able to regulate the actin cytoskeleton. Surprisingly, an AtRAC2 T-DNA insertion mutant did not show any observable phenotypes. GFP fusion proteins of wild type and constitutively active AtRAC2 were both localised to the plasma membrane. The data suggest that AtRAC2 is involved in development of xylem vessels, likely through regulation of the actin cytoskeleton or NADPH oxidase. The role of RAC GTPases in regulation of the actin cytoskeleton in plants is well documented. However, although the ARP2/3 complex had been identified in plants/Arabidopsis, the mechanisms regulating this complex were unknown. Through database searches, we identified three Arabidopsis genes, AtBRK1, AtNAP and AtPIR, which encoded proteins with similarity to subunits of a protein complex shown to regulate the activity of WAVE1 in mammalian cells. T-DNA inactivation mutants of AtNAP and AtPIR displayed morphological defects on epidermal cells undergoing polar expansion, such as trichomes and leaf pavement cells. The phenotypes were similar to those observed for ARP2/3 complex mutants, suggesting that AtNAP and AtPIR act in the same pathway as the ARP2/3 complex in plants. The actin cytoskeleton in atnap and atpir mutants was less branched than in wild type plants; instead, actin filaments aggregated in thick actin bundles. Finally, we have recently discovered a small gene family encoding putative WAVE homologues. In mammalian cells, Rac activates WAVE1 through binding to PIR121 or Sra1 (the mammalian homologues of AtPIR). The discovery of a putative WAVE regulatory complex as well as putative WAVE homologues in Arabidopsis suggests that plant RAC GTPases regulate organisation of the actin cytoskeleton during polar growth at least partly through the ARP2/3 complex, using an evolutionarily conserved mechanism.

ARPC2 protein localization in a plant cell Kateřina Šlajcherová 1 Abstract Actin cytoskeleton is an ubiquitous structure which plays numerous irreplacable roles. Actin nucleation is, beside formins, performed by ARP2/3 complex (actin-related protein), comprising of seven subunits (ARP2, 3, C1-C5) and activated by protein SCAR/WAVE complex. ARP2/3 complex is attached to the membrane and branches existing microfilaments, apart from nucleating them de novo. ARP2/3 mutants in most organisms show severe defects. However, plant mutants exhibit only mild phenotype, for example, Arabidopsis thaliana ARPC2 mutant (dis2-1) has deformed trichomes and leaf epidermal cells, but its viability is not impaired. The aim of the thesis is to map ARPC2 localization within the cell and broaden our understanding of ARP2/3 complex role in plant cell morphogenesis. Tobacco ARPC2 (NtArpC2) subunit was visualized in Arabidopsis plants, using the GFP fusion protein as well as imunofluorescence and anti-ARPC2 antibody. Experiments were undertaken to collocalize the subunit with actin and microtubular cytoskeleton, with mitochondrions, endosomes and other membrane organelles. The specimens were observed in confocal and TIRF microscope. The GFP-NtARPC2 protein shows as motile dots; their movement, but not their existence, is dependent...