This study examines asymmetric information content of REIT IPOs as compared to that of industrial IPOs matched by similar asset size, underwriter reputation ranking, and partial adjustment of the offer-price from the midpoint of the original file range. The asymmetric information level is proxied by the relative bid-ask spread (RELSPREAD), adverse selection component of Glosten and Harris (GH, 1988), and the adverse selection component of Lin, Sanger, and Booth (LSB, 1995). All three measures are estimated over 45- and 60-day windows. Using a sample of 78 equity REIT IPOs and 123 Industrial IPOs for the period of January 1, 1993 to December 31, 2007, the results indicate that REIT IPOs have less asymmetric information content as compared to mature industrial firms. All results control for leverage, beginning assets size, issue proceeds, underpricing, partial adjustment, number of IPOs within the same year, venture capital backing, underwriter reputation, average daily volume, average daily price, specialist’s inventory risk, and the turnover ratio. The results also control for the Nasdaq and NYSE rule change of minimum tick increments from 1/8th to 1/16th on June 2, 1997, and June 24, 1997, respectively. The findings provide strong support for the hypothesis that REIT IPOs have less asymmetric information content than non-REIT IPOs.

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Background: Studies of complex and big-ticket tenders such as construction contracts have been the main research focus of public procurement. The efficiency of these low frequency transactionsis inherently hard to study, since the real world offers a wide range of variables that could explain the discrepancies. What is not studied to large extents are high frequency transactions, with low transaction volume, of common goods. These purchases are mostly overlooked due to the lack of documentation that exists, primarily explained by the low degree of digitalization and transparency on smaller contracts/transaction that fall below the EU reporting thresholds.Purpose: The purpose of this research is to examine the existence of price discrepancies for homogenous goods in public procurement between Swedish municipalities. Furthermore, provide insight and possible explanations to this phenomenon in accordance with economic theory.Method: This study opted to use a quantitative method of research to look at different municipalities and their procurement invoices. The quantitative data has been compiled and adjusted to comparable numbers, so that differences can be identified with clarity.Conclusions: The study concludes that there are significant price discrepancies for homogenous goods in the public procurement sector. With price variations ranging from being negligible to paying twice the price. The selected theoretical framework points towards opportunism and asymmetric information being the main sources of the price discrepancies. Improvement could possibly be made by shifting policies towards further digitalization of the procurement process and horizontally integrating the public sphere. In turn reducing asymmetric information and transaction costs, making less room for opportunistic behavior due to improvements in ex ante and ex post costs. From the results of the empirics, a speculative cost saving potential of 7.90 % is estimated.

Syften: Syftet med studiet är dels att redogöra för huvudorsaken som har gett upphov till uppkomsten av snabblånebranschen. Dels att framställa väsentliga faktorer som har föranlett att branschen kan stanna kvar på snabblånemarknaden. Metod: Med avseende på studiets två frågeställningar har vi använt oss dels av kvalitativ ansats för att kunna beskriva noggrant anledningen till uppkomsten av snabblånebranschen via en tolkning av en del intervjufrågor. Dels tillämpades en kvantitativ ansats för att komma till viktiga faktorer som resulterat i att företagen inom denna bransch stannat kvar på kreditmarknaden. Teoretisk referensram: Studiens teoretiska referensram utgörs av vetenskapliga artiklar och  böcker som handlat om informationens asymmetriska påverkan, finansiella gap och  entreprenöriska möjligheter. Vidare har relevant material från Finansinspektionen,  Kronofogden och Konsumentverket använts som grund till den kvalitativa undersökningen  för det empiriska studien. Empiriska studier: Den empiriska studien utförts på åtta av branschens fyrtiofyra företag snabblåneföretag, som tillhör branschorganisationen S.K.E.F. Slutsats: Till följd av asymmetrisk information mellan parter (kreditgivare & kredittagare) avstår stora och traditionella kreditinstitutioner från att förmedla krediter till vissa kredittagare som har låg kredittrovärdighet. Därigenom skapas en marknad som utmärks av obalans mellan utbud av kapital och efterfrågan på kapital vilket leder till uppkomsten av ett finansiellt gap. Entreprenörer upptäcker affärsmöjligheter genom att skapa nya tjänster som efterfrågas av marknaden. På så vis fyller snabblåneföretagen det finansiella gapet på kreditmarknaden som inte fylls av andra kreditinstitutioner. Studiens resultat visar att snabblåneföretag erhåller låga vinster. Men om företagen motverkar kreditrisker genom regelrätta och noggranna kreditbedömningar leder detta troligtvis till högre vinst. / Purposes: The purpose of the study is partly to account for the main reason that has given rise to the emergence of instant loans industry. Secondly to produce significant factors have led the sector to remain on the instant lending market.  Methods: With respect to the study's two issues, we have used both a qualitative approach to describe accurately the reason for the emergence of instant lending industry through the interpretation of some interview questions. We have partly applied a qualitative approach to understand the important factors that constitute the fact that the sector manage to remain in the credit market. Theoretical framework: The study's theoretical framework is made up of scientific articles and books that dealt with media information’s asymmetric impact, financial gaps and entrepreneur opportunities. Furthermore, the relevant material from the Financial Supervisory Authority, The Swedish Enforcement Authority and Swedish Consumer Agency has been used in order to obtain a qualitative survey of the empirical study.   Empirical studies: Our empirical study consists of eight out of the industry's forty-four instant loan companies that belong to the trade organization S.K.E.F. Conclusion: As a result of asymmetric information between the parties refrain large and traditional credit institutions from providing loans to borrowers by low of credibility. A market characterized by imbalance between supply of capital and demand for capital lead to an emergence of a financial gap within the market. Entrepreneurs find business opportunities by creating new services demanded by the market. Thus fills the instant loans companies the financial gap on the credit market that is not filled by other credit institutions. The result of this study concludes that firms obtain low profits. But if companies counteracts credit risk this will likely lead to a higher profit by making regular and thorough credit checks on the borrower.

This thesis examines the efficacy of markets, using both quantitative and qualitative methods in a complementary way. Specifically, it starts (in Part II) by using the results from a quantitative analysis of initial public offering (IPO) underpricing as a barometer for corporate governance failure. This quantitative work identified Russia, China and India as extreme outliers. The data set used for this work was the cross-section sample of 45 countries developed by Loughran, Ritter & Rydqvist (2008). More broadly (in Part III), the thesis takes the lead of the quantitative evidence to examine, in a qualitative framework, possible sources of corporate governance failure in China, India and Russia. This was done categorically, under the headings of Globalisation, Corporate Governance, Institutional Structure and Competitive Strategy. Data were gathered by eldwork in China, India and Russia, and these findings were then benchmarked against findings from further fieldwork in the United Kingdom. This created a unique 56,000 word database, which was used for both cross-site and within-site analysis. This indicates how both unique attributes (e.g. rule of law, transparency, regulation, etc.), and common attributes (e.g. transition from a socialist/Marxist regime, market immaturity, asymmetric information etc.), combine to explain the different morphologies of corporate governance in these three countries. The quantitative analysis (Part II) consists of exploratory data analysis (EDA) and econometric work. The exploratory data analysis establishes, through graphical means and regression techniques, a negative correlation between IPO underpricing and globalisation (as measured by the KOF index, see Dreher, 2006). Building on this, the subsequent econometric modelling suggests that economic, demographic and institutional factors are all significant determinants of IPO underpricing. The qualitative analysis carried out in Part III of the thesis, builds on and extends the quantitative analysis of Part II. This is consistent with the multiple method approach, which combines both quantitative and qualitative analysis to achieve a synthesis of findings. The qualitative analysis uses evidence from semi-structured interviews with finance professionals and opinion makers, as well as evidence from additional primary and secondary sources, which was also made available through fieldwork contacts. This analysis emphasises the especial importance of board composition, information flows, the judicial system, the stock exchanges, and financial regulators for forms of corporate governance.

金融危機的發生不但使受創國經濟活動萎縮，也影響世界經濟的成長，其發生的原因固然不盡相同，但毫無例外的，均與經濟結構的失衡以及金融政策或管理的失當有關。在過去的歷史中，金融危機在不同的國家、不同的時間一再地發生，金融危機不僅使個人及社會財富損失，而且造成社會及經濟問題，同時亦提高政治的不穩定性。本文旨在探討1992年歐洲貨幣制度（EMS）的匯率機制（ERM）危機、1994年墨西哥金融危機、1997年亞洲金融危機、及1998年俄羅斯金融危機等四大金融危機。首先就金融危機的定義、徵兆、及類型，加以文獻檢視並分別說明。其次，就金融危機形成原因的予以探討，說明金融危機成因的理論模型，其演變可分成第一代、第二代、及第三代金融危機模型。此外，對於資訊不對稱在金融市場所形成逆選擇與道德風險的問題，及與金融危機的關係，亦一併敘述。 經檢視以上四大金融危機發生的背景、成因、類型，及各次金融危機發生之前的徵兆與現象；探討各次金融危機發生後，各國的因應對策；比較各次金融危機的差異與相同之處；並分析國際貨幣基金 (IMF) 在各次金融危機中所扮演的角色；以及由各國處理金融危機的歷史經驗中，獲得結論如下: ERM金融危機加速區域金融合作的推展，墨西哥及俄羅斯政府未能信守承諾加速金融危機的爆發，國際大規模資金反轉流出及擴散效應，引爆亞洲金融危機，政府的干預及國際的援助促使亞洲金融危機早日解除；健全的實質經濟結構優於貨幣制度的考量，妥善導引國際間資本的移動勝於加強管制，金融危機的發生促使受創國加速金融改革，強化國際最後奧援者的機制有其必要性。為預防金融危機的發生，我們的建議為：循序推動金融自由化，健全法規體制，建立完善的金融監理及預警制度，妥善導引及管理外資，積極參與國際及區域金融機制，尊重中央銀行對匯率的操作策略，及積極培養優秀金融人才。 關鍵詞: 金融危機、資訊不對稱、匯率 / Financial crises results in the inability of financial markets to function efficiently, which leads to a sharp contraction in economic activity. They have not only affected the economic development of the countries in some region but also had deep negative consequences all over the world. They have occurred throughout history resulting in the loss of national and international public and personal wealth, creating politically uncertainty and shaking the foundations of the national, regional and international economic and social order. This paper attempts to explore focus mainly on four major financial crises in the 1990s: the crisis of “Exchange Rate Mechanism” of European Monetary System in 1992, the “Mexican Financial Crisis” in 1994, the “Asian Financial Crisis” in 1997, and the “Russian Financial Crisis” in 1998. Firstly reference is to explicate separately the definition, symptom and types of financial crisis, with to documentation. Secondly research causes of the financial crisis, and the contributing factor mode can be categorized in first-, second-, and third-, generation models. Further more it is to interpret the problems of adverse selection and moral hazard affected by asymmetric information, and the connection with the crisis. Through surveying background and causes of four financial crises and the symptom and phenomenon prior to the crisis, the paper concludes by drawing lessons from the crises experience to policymaking in emerging market countries. Therefore it brings to the conclusion as follows: government’s intervention and international assistance helped end the financial crises; healthy and essential economic structure is superior to consideration of currency system; properly guide the movement of international capitals is more important than tightening control; occurrence of financial crisis urges injured nations to speed up financial reform; and it is necessary to strengthen the mechanism for an international lender of last resort. According to the study findings, the policy suggestions for avoiding the financial crises are: to promote financial liberalization gradually; establish a healthy regulating system; build up a good supervising and early warning system; properly guide and manage foreign capitals; participate actively in international and regional financial structure; respect central bank’s operational strategy toward the exchange rate; and actively train great financial talents. Keywords: Financial Crisis, Asymmetric Information, Exchange Rate

This diploma thesis deals with the undervaluation of initial public offerings on the Russian market during the period of 2003-2014 using the ordinary least squares method. The main emphasis of the thesis lies in the development of primary emissions on the Russian market. Moreover, the previous literature is diversified by combining theory of asymmetric information with the analysis of market cycles. We have proved that shares are undervalued on average with the help of the latest figures from the Russian IPO market. By the subsequent analysis of the undervaluation phenomena and factors like age of the institution, size of the institution underwriters, market cycles, supply price of the issued shares, sector of the institution and P/E, P/CF indexes, we have arrived at the conclusion that the Russian IPO market is still developing. We have also demonstrated that in the case of high activity on the IPO market, the so called ¨hot period¨ on the market, and in the case of overpriced shares, the Russian IPO companies undervalue their shares. According to the analysis of the Russian IPO market, the main stress has been put on the companies that belong to the industrial and energy sectors and the analysis has also shown that the reputation of the underwriters does not influence the undervaluation of the...

Studiens syfte: Denna studie har som syfte att undersöka hur svenska venture capital aktörer minimerar asymmetrisk information i samarbetsprocessen med entreprenören. Metod: Studien är av fallstudiedesign med kvalitativ ansats där semistrukturerade intervjuer samt enkät med slutna frågor har använts för att samla in data. Empiri: Det empiriska materialet visar hur tre svenska venture capital aktörer noggrant och effektivt väljer investeringsobjekt och sedan arbetar aktivt för att dessa bolag ska bli så bra som möjligt. Slutsats: Studien visar att svenska venture capital aktörer använder sig av en kombination av olika verktyg och att bygga förtroende mellan de olika parterna för att minimera risken med asymmetrisk information. / Purpose: The aim of this study is to examine how the Swedish venture capital operators minimize the asymmetric information that may occur during an investment process. Method: This study has a case study design using a qualitative approach in which semi- structured interviews and a questionnaire with closed-end questions were used to collect data. Research: The empirical data shows how Swedish Venture Capital operators accurately and efficiently selects investment targets and then actively work for the companies they invest in. Conclusion: The main result of this investigation is that Swedish venture capital operators use a combination of different tools and trust to minimize the risk of asymmetric information.

Diese Dissertation diskutiert zwei Modellvarianten der Spieltheorie und Industrieökonomik: asymmetrische Information und vertikale Beziehungen. In einem Reputations-Spiel, in welchem Kurzfristspieler hintereinander entscheiden, ob sie mit einem Langfristspieler interagieren wollen, stoppt die Interaktion oft für immer, sobald einer der Spieler sich entscheidet nicht zu interagieren. Ist der Aktionsraum des Langfristspielers ausreichend groß, kann es passieren, dass obwohl die Einschätzungen über die Reputation des Langfristspielers identisch sind, das Verhalten sich verändert, da der vorhergehende Stopp der Interaktion den Langfristspieler dazu bringt, sich mehr anzustrengen. In einer vertikalen Struktur, in welcher Intermediäre ein Input-Gut von einer exogenen Anzahl an Zulieferern beziehen müssen, können diese Intermediäre die Menge eines homogenen Produkts, welches an Konsumenten verkauft werden soll, wählen. Falls einer der Intermediäre in Form einer Genossenschaft organisiert ist, steigt der durchschnittliche Gewinn der Zulieferer, was zu einem ineffizient geringen Angebot an die Konsumenten führt. Eine Kooperative kann sich als Monopol behaupten, sofern die Kapazität der Zulieferer ausreichend gering ist, während eine Duopolstruktur vorliegt, wenn diese Kapazität hoch ist. In einer Wertschöpfungskette mit einem Zulieferer, einem Händler und Unsicherheit über die Nachfrage am Markt sind die Entscheidungen über kostenlose Informationsbeschaffung, um diese Unsicherheit aufzulösen, strategische Komplemente. Wenn die technische Beschränkung der Signalpräzision so ist, dass die Informationsbeschaffung nicht genug Unsicherheit beseitigt, ist die Informationsrente klein und der Zulieferer kann sich entscheiden uninformiert zu bleiben, um ein Glaubwürdigkeitsproblem zu umgehen und Verträge anzubieten die keine private Information signalisieren. Steigt die Signalpräzision, entscheiden sich beide Marktteilnehmer so gut wie möglich informiert zu sein. / This dissertation discusses two modelling variants in game theory and industrial economics: asymmetric information and vertical relations. In a reputation game, in which a sequence of short-run players chooses if to interact with a long-run player, often interactions stops forever, if one short-run player decides not to interact. If the long-run player''s action set is sufficiently rich, although beliefs about the long-run player''s reputation may be identical, choices may be different, as the preceding refusal to interact can lead the long-run player to improve on effort. In a vertical structure, in which intermediaries have to acquire an input from an exogenously given number of suppliers, intermediaries can choose the quantities of a homogenous product to be sold to consumers. In case one of the intermediaries is organized as a cooperative the average profit of suppliers, increases, leading to inefficiently low supply to consumers. Furthermore, a cooperative may be a monopoly in the downstream market, if the upstream production capacity is sufficiently small, whereas there is a duopoly with one firm maximizing its profit and one firm maximizing average profit, if upstream capacity is large. In a supply chain with one supplier, one retailer and uncertainty about market demand, the choices on costless information acquisition to resolve this uncertainty are strategic complements. If the technical limitation on the precision of the signals is such that being informed does not reduce enough uncertainty, the potential information rent is small and the supplier may choose to stay uninformed and avoid a credibility problem by offering pooling contracts. If the precision of private signals increases, both agents decide to be informed as much as possible.

O objetivo deste trabalho é analisar o impacto da criação do Cadastro Positivo na concessão de crédito aos consumidores no Brasil, a partir do ponto de vista teórico-legal e da análise comparativa entre países que já possuem este mecanismo de consulta consolidado e os que não o utilizam. Para tanto, apresentaram-se aspectos teóricos, legais e conceituais sobre os arquivos de consumo utilizados para a concessão de crédito no Brasil. Há, também, o estudo dos aspectos conceituais da Teoria da Informação Assimétrica aplicada ao mercado financeiro, tanto nos aspectos de Risco Moral, como de Seleção Adversa. A experiência internacional é estudada primeiramente através da análise dos países selecionados a partir do artigo de Japelli e Pagano (1999) e, posteriormente, por meio de um levantamento de artigos que realizam análises empíricas sobre bancos de dados para concessão de crédito. Por fim, faz-se uma análise da implantação do Cadastro Positivo no Brasil, por meio do estudo da jurisprudência de todos os casos tramitados no STJ, com a palavra-chave “cadastro positivo” até dezembro de 2016. Assim, foi possível verificar que o Cadastro Positivo é um instrumento benéfico para o mercado de crédito brasileiro. / This Master Thesis aims to analyze the impact of the institution of the Positive Credit Information database had in Brazilian credit market, from theoretical and legal points of view and through a comparative analysis of countries that have already had this mechanism and those which do not use. Therefore, theoretical, legal and conceptual aspects of consumer files used for the granting of credit in Brazil are presented. It comprehends, also, the study the conceptual aspects of Asymmetric Information Theory applied to the financial markets, both in the aspects of Moral Hazard, as well as Adverse Selection. International experience is primarily studied through the analysis of countries selected based in Japelli and Pagano’s article (1999) in the following and, later, through a survey of articles that carry out empirical analysis of credit bureaus. The last section comprises an analysis of the implementation of the Positive Credit database in Brazil, through the study of jurisprudence in all cases within the Brazilian’s “Superior Tribunal de Justiça”, using the keyword “Positive Information” until May 31, 2016. Thus, it was possible to verify that the Positive Credit is a beneficial tool for the Brazilian credit market.