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The principal sanctuaries of Attica outside the asty were situated in strategically important positions at the territorial limits of Athens. It will be argued that the sanctuaries placed on the frontiers of Attica were important nodes in the social construction, expression and implementation of Athenian territoriality. Sanctuaries which accommodated polis-level cults outside the urban centre provided the Athenians with a highly visible means of demarcating and communicating the extent of their territorial sovereignty. These religious sites developed in a visually conspicuous manner at a time when the territorial and social boundaries between the Athenians and neighbouring communities were crystallising. From an early stage in the development of the sanctuary sites of Attica, they played an instrumental role in defining the extent of Athenian territory, a space imbued with meaning in terms of claims of sovereignty and membership within the Athenian community. During the Archaic period, the border sanctuaries of Attica and the cults which they accommodated were elaborated, augmenting Athenian claims to contested borderlands and enhancing the prestige of the polis. The relative ranking and status of Athens in her interpolis relations was thereby enhanced, allowing the Athenians to reduce the threat of invasion of the chora. Following the Persian Wars, the sanctuaries continued to disseminate messages of the power and status of Athens, now hegemon of the Delian League. The structures and rites of the border sanctuaries reified the hegemonic power of Athens. When, during the long and bitter conflict of the Peloponnesian War, it became necessary to control the points of access into Athenian territory along the coastline, Rhamnous and Sounion were fortified. In the Late Classical period, the military role of a number of these sanctuaries was institutionalised. Fortification walls were augmented and refurbished and ephebic involvement in rites and festivals attested the close connection between religious and military activity.

The principal sanctuaries of Attica outside the asty were situated in strategically important positions at the territorial limits of Athens. It will be argued that the sanctuaries placed on the frontiers of Attica were important nodes in the social construction, expression and implementation of Athenian territoriality. Sanctuaries which accommodated polis-level cults outside the urban centre provided the Athenians with a highly visible means of demarcating and communicating the extent of their territorial sovereignty. These religious sites developed in a visually conspicuous manner at a time when the territorial and social boundaries between the Athenians and neighbouring communities were crystallising. From an early stage in the development of the sanctuary sites of Attica, they played an instrumental role in defining the extent of Athenian territory, a space imbued with meaning in terms of claims of sovereignty and membership within the Athenian community. During the Archaic period, the border sanctuaries of Attica and the cults which they accommodated were elaborated, augmenting Athenian claims to contested borderlands and enhancing the prestige of the polis. The relative ranking and status of Athens in her interpolis relations was thereby enhanced, allowing the Athenians to reduce the threat of invasion of the chora. Following the Persian Wars, the sanctuaries continued to disseminate messages of the power and status of Athens, now hegemon of the Delian League. The structures and rites of the border sanctuaries reified the hegemonic power of Athens. When, during the long and bitter conflict of the Peloponnesian War, it became necessary to control the points of access into Athenian territory along the coastline, Rhamnous and Sounion were fortified. In the Late Classical period, the military role of a number of these sanctuaries was institutionalised. Fortification walls were augmented and refurbished and ephebic involvement in rites and festivals attested the close connection between religious and military activity.

Athens insists on representing white marble as the material embodiment of the city, and consequently white marble is persistently present in mythologies of the city. This thesis argues that in perpetuating these myths that make consistent appeals to idealised ‘white places’, the reciprocal and mytho-poetic relationship between marble’s materiality and the Athenian metropolis is progressively over-simplified. The result of this particular, reductive historiography is that today the contemporary opsis (architectural surface and image) of marble stimulates an emotional (pathetic) perception of the material that, by extension, fosters a marble-image of Athens that is truly pathetic. This pathos is clear if we consider the violent gestures that accompanied a series of recent anti-austerity riots in which rioters deliberately tore marble veneers from numerous modern and contemporary urban edifices. Despite the apparent senselessness of this act of dissent toward the superficiality of the current Athenian politico-economic apparatus, these actions in fact exposed the superficial manner in which the material has been employed to re-present Athens as an imaginary place. This thesis regards the perceptible absence of marble brought (inadvertently) to the surface during these riots as an opening to a deeper understanding of marble’s materiality. ‘Following’ the agency of marble’s matter, this Architecture by Design thesis presents three potential ways of re-instituting what matters in Attica’s marble. Firstly, the thesis advances a theoretical argument for the mutually constitutive relationship between marble and Athens, where obsolete illustrations and a priori dogmas regarding notions of matter and materiality, image and opsis, landscape and ecology are challenged (Vol. 1). Secondly, the thesis presents a re-presentational visual archive as an expressive essay of both marble’s opsis and of Athens’ marbleimage (Vol. 2). Thirdly, the thesis evokes the poetics of marble as discourse along with a portfolio of architectural design as it materialises a series of speculative design propositions that are placed in specific charged contexts across the broader Attic (metropolitan) landscape, and which address practices of marble concerned with the marble-image of Athens (Vol. 3). Read in conjunction (or in disjunction), these three means of re-situating marble’s materiality within its inherently aesthetic and, by extension, political ground mobilise the material’s asperity. In this way, the material’s intrinsic textures, tensions and differences are projected into the making of marble’s opsis —an opsis that in turn re-informs and enriches the making of Athens’ imageries.

Entre os séculos XVI e XI a.C., a Grécia continental foi palco do domínio micênico e manteve certa homogeneidade no campo político e cultural. Com a onda de destruições que afetaram o mundo micênico do século XIII a.C. em diante, deu-se a queda progressiva desse sistema social, político e cultural. Se, por um lado, o fenômeno corrompe as estruturas da tradição antiga, por outro, estabelece o princípio do Período do Ferro. É no resultado deste processo bilateral que esta dissertação se concentra, pois tendo como fonte a cerâmica ática produzida entre 1100 e 700 a.C., busca-se compreender e delinear esse processo. Dentro da concepção aqui presente de mudança cultural, acredita-se que exista a manutenção, em maior ou menor grau, de certos cânones socioculturais, bem como o seu oposto: as modificações e inovações. A cerâmica tem lugar nessa conjuntura devido a sua característica em reter uma parte das impressões valorativas, estéticas e culturais da sociedade que a produziu. Esta proposta se limita a análise de vasos de cerâmica produzidos na Ática durante o final do Período Micênico (Submicênico), Protogeométrico e Geométrico, de forma a salientar o fio condutor da tradição entre os estilos cerâmicos dos respectivos períodos, e também identificar onde se encontram as inovações. / Between the sixteenth and eleventh centuries B.C., Continental Greece hosted the Mycenaean area and kept a certain homogeneity in the political and cultural field. With the surge of destruction that affected the Mycenaean world of the thirteenth century BC onwards, occurred the gradual decline of this social, political and cultural system. If, on the one hand, the phenomenon corrupts the structures of the ancient tradition, on the other, it establishes the principle of the Iron Age. It is on the result of this bilateral process that this dissertation focuses, as having as source the Attic pottery produced between 1100 and 700 BC, it seeks to understand and delineate this process. Within the concept of cultural change presented here, it is believed that there is a maintenance, in greater or lesser extent, of certain socio-cultural canons, as well as its opposite: modifications and innovations. The ceramic takes place at this juncture due to its characteristic to retain a part of the evaluative, aesthetic and cultural impressions of society that produced it. This proposal is limited to ceramic pots analysis produced in Attica during the late Mycenaean period (Submycenaean), Protogeometric and Geometric, in order to highlight the thread of tradition between the ceramic styles of the respective periods, and also identify where innovations are.

Entre os séculos XVI e XI a.C., a Grécia continental foi palco do domínio micênico e manteve certa homogeneidade no campo político e cultural. Com a onda de destruições que afetaram o mundo micênico do século XIII a.C. em diante, deu-se a queda progressiva desse sistema social, político e cultural. Se, por um lado, o fenômeno corrompe as estruturas da tradição antiga, por outro, estabelece o princípio do Período do Ferro. É no resultado deste processo bilateral que esta dissertação se concentra, pois tendo como fonte a cerâmica ática produzida entre 1100 e 700 a.C., busca-se compreender e delinear esse processo. Dentro da concepção aqui presente de mudança cultural, acredita-se que exista a manutenção, em maior ou menor grau, de certos cânones socioculturais, bem como o seu oposto: as modificações e inovações. A cerâmica tem lugar nessa conjuntura devido a sua característica em reter uma parte das impressões valorativas, estéticas e culturais da sociedade que a produziu. Esta proposta se limita a análise de vasos de cerâmica produzidos na Ática durante o final do Período Micênico (Submicênico), Protogeométrico e Geométrico, de forma a salientar o fio condutor da tradição entre os estilos cerâmicos dos respectivos períodos, e também identificar onde se encontram as inovações. / Between the sixteenth and eleventh centuries B.C., Continental Greece hosted the Mycenaean area and kept a certain homogeneity in the political and cultural field. With the surge of destruction that affected the Mycenaean world of the thirteenth century BC onwards, occurred the gradual decline of this social, political and cultural system. If, on the one hand, the phenomenon corrupts the structures of the ancient tradition, on the other, it establishes the principle of the Iron Age. It is on the result of this bilateral process that this dissertation focuses, as having as source the Attic pottery produced between 1100 and 700 BC, it seeks to understand and delineate this process. Within the concept of cultural change presented here, it is believed that there is a maintenance, in greater or lesser extent, of certain socio-cultural canons, as well as its opposite: modifications and innovations. The ceramic takes place at this juncture due to its characteristic to retain a part of the evaluative, aesthetic and cultural impressions of society that produced it. This proposal is limited to ceramic pots analysis produced in Attica during the late Mycenaean period (Submycenaean), Protogeometric and Geometric, in order to highlight the thread of tradition between the ceramic styles of the respective periods, and also identify where innovations are.

This thesis is contains descriptions and definitions of the 2nd millennium BC tholos tomb architecture in Mainland Greece. The study area is divided into eight regions: Peloponnessos, Central Greece, Epirus, Attica, Euboea, Thessaly, Macedonia and Thrace. The time period of earliest tomb dated between 2000-1675 BC and the latest between 1320-1160 BC. Attention has been put on issues of typological characteristics, construction technique and stone materials of the tholos tombs.

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Η όλο και αυξανόμενη δραστηριότητα του ανθρώπου τα τελευταία χρόνια στην περιοχή των Μεσογείων (Αττική) έχει προκαλέσει σοβαρά περιβαλλοντικά προβλήματα και έχει αλλοιώσει την φυσιογνωμία και τη σύνθεση των φυσικών οικοσυστημάτων αυτής. Η κατασκευή και λειτουργία του Νέου Διεθνή Αερολιμένα Αθηνών, της Αττικής Οδού και άλλων σημαντικών έργων στην περιοχή, έχει επιτείνει αυτά τα προβλήματα άμεσα ή έμμεσα. Κατόπιν εφαρμογής διαφόρων μεθόδων οικολογικής αξιολόγησης διαπιστώθηκε ότι περιοχή μελέτης εμφανίζεται αρκετά υποβαθμισμένη όσον αφορά στα φυσικά της οικοσυστήματα. Οι υψηλές ανθρωπογενείς πιέσεις στο φυσικό περιβάλλον, από τα αρχαία ακόμη χρόνια, έχουν ασκήσει αρνητική επίδραση στα οικοσυστήματα αυτής. Η επέκταση του αστικού ιστού είναι προφανώς η σημαντικότερη διαταραχή που σημειώνεται στην περιοχή, αλλά και άλλες δραστηριότητες (π.χ. πυρκαγιές, λατομεία κ.ά) έχουν σχεδόν τα ίδια καταστροφικά, για το φυσικό περιβάλλον, αποτελέσματα. Η προστασία και διατήρηση των φυσικών τύπων οικοτόπων που έχουν απομείνει στην περιοχή είναι πολύ σημαντική, γι’αυτό τον λόγο σχεδιάστηκε και εφαρμόστηκε ένα πρότυπο πρόγραμμα βιο-παρακολούθησης (bio-monitoring) προκειμένου να παρακολουθηθούν οι αλλαγές στα ενδιαιτήματα και τα φυτικά είδη της περιοχής που προκλήθηκαν από την κατασκευή και τη λειτουργία του Νέου Διεθνούς Αερολιμένα Αθηνών και από την ανάπτυξη της περιοχής που το περιβάλλει. Η λεπτομερής έρευνα της χλωρίδας και της βλάστησης και η χαρτογράφηση της βλάστησης μας επέτρεψε να προσδιορίσουμε και να καταγράψουμε τους τύπους οικοτόπων, τις φυτοκοινωνίες και τη δυναμική των οικοσυστημάτων της περιοχής, καθώς και να αξιολογήθουν οι προσδοκώμενες περιβαλλοντικές επιδράσεις. Στην παρούσα διατριβή παρουσιάζονται: 1. Τα αποτελέσματα από τη μελέτη της χλωρίδας και της βλάστησης της περιοχής. 2. Η αξιολόγηση των τύπων οικοτόπων και των επί μέρους περιοχών (sites) στις οποίες υποδιαιρέθηκε η περιοχή προκειμένου να μελετηθεί καλύτερα. 3. Προτάσεις για ένα ολοκληρωμένο πρόγραμμα βιοπαρακολούθησης ειδών και οικοτόπων που βασίζεται σε αυτά τα δεδομένα. 4. Μία σειρά ειδικών χαρτών που κατασκευάσαμε και απεικονίζουν την παρούσα κατάσταση της περιοχής καθώς και την κατάστασή της κατά το παρελθόν. / The continuously increasing human activities in the Mesogaia area (prefecture of Attiki, Greece) have caused severe environmental disturbances and alteration of the area’s natural ecosystems. The construction and operation on the area of the new Athens International Airport “Eleftherios Venizelos” and of other infrastructure works, such as “Attiki Odos” highway connecting the city of Athens with the Mesogaia area, has amplified these disturbances directly or indirectly. After applying various ecologica evaluation methods it is concluded that the study area appears to be severely degraded as far as its natural ecosystems are concerned. High scale man-induced environmental disturbances, going back to ancient times, have had a negative impact on the natural ecosystems. Urban expansion is obviously the most important disturbance on the area, but also other human activities (eg. wildfires, quarries etc.) have almost equally detrimental effects. Conservation of the remaining natural habitats is of great importance; therefore a biomonitoring research programme was created and applied in order to monitor any impacts induced by the construction and operation of the new International Airport and the development of the surrounding area. A detailed survey of the flora and vegetation of the area and vegetation mapping enabled us to identify and record the habitat types, plant communities and the area’s ecosystem dynamics, as well as evaluate anticipated environmental impacts. In the present thesis are presented: 1. The results from the study of the flora and vegetation of the area. 2. The evaluation of the various vegetation types and sites that the area was divided in order to be studied thoroughly. 3. An integrated bio-monitoring programme for the plants and habitats of the study area based on the above evaluation and results. 4. A series of maps depicting the area’s current and past situation.