Despite the rise of globalization and increasing multilingualism, the effect of language dominance on thought and perception in bilingual speakers has received little attention. This study examines the semantic networks of Spanish-English bilingual adults and monolingual English-speaking peers to determine whether language dominance structures the semantic space of a bilingual speaker to more closely match the semantic space of a monolingual speaker of the dominant language. It is predicted that semantic ratings produced by English-dominant bilinguals will correlate more closely to the semantic ratings of monolingual English-speaking participants than ratings produced by Spanish-dominant bilinguals. Spanish-English bilinguals (n=20) completed the Bilingual Language Profile regarding language use, attitudes, and fluency (Birdsong, Gertken, & Amengual, 2012). Spanish-English bilingual participants and monolingual English-speaking participants (n=20) then rated a series of translationally equivalent nouns (n=80) according to sound, color, morality, valence, size, and position. Using these ratings, a Euclidean distance matrix containing the ratings of English-dominant bilinguals, Spanish-dominant bilinguals, and English monolinguals was analyzed within and between groups using hierarchical cluster analysis, matrix comparisons (Mantel Tests), Spearman correlations, and qualitative k-means clustering analysis. Results suggest the possibility of dynamic interconnection between languages, with semantic connection weights determined by the dominant language (Malt et al, 2015). However, more research is needed to draw firm conclusions. / Communication Sciences

The United States is in the process of changing demographically. As a result, there is an increasing demand for culturally appropriate counseling services for minority groups. However, little research about counselors' ability to deal with issues stemming from bilingualism is available. As language is used to establish the relationship in counseling, the importance of counselors' understanding regarding how a second language may influence the counseling process is vital. Although numerous studies have thus far emphasized the significance of cultural knowledge and the need for bilingual counseling services, culturally diverse populations continue to be underserved due to language barriers (Gushue, Constantine, and Sciarra, 2008). The American Counseling Association's (ACA) Code of Ethics (2005; 2014) provides best-practice guidelines for appropriate bilingual support during the counseling session. However, few studies have explored the role played by a second or additional language during the counseling session (Marcos and Urcuyo, 1979; Oquendo, 1996; Ramos-Sanchez, 2009; Santiago-Rivera, Altarriba, Poll, Gonzalez-Miller, and Cragun, 2009; Tehrani and Vaughan, 2009). This study adds to the existing body of knowledge about bilingual counselors' experiences providing counseling services in a language in which they have not had professional training. Chapter One provides an overview of the problem, Chapter Two delivers an in-depth literature review, Chapter Three describes the methodology, Chapter Four provides findings of the study, and Chapter Five discusses the results and offers implications for bilingual counselors and counselor educators and supervisors as well as makes suggestions for further research. / Ph. D.

No description available.

Brian Chan Hok-shing. / Thesis (M.A.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1992. / Includes bibliographical references. / Abstract / Acknowledgements / Chapter 1. --- Introduction / Chapter 1.1 --- "Defining ""Code´ؤmixing""" / Chapter 1.2 --- Code-mixing in Hong Kong / Chapter 1.3 --- Aims and Objectives / Chapter 2. --- Syntactic Constraints on CM / Chapter 2.1 --- Language-universal constraints / Chapter 2.1.1 --- The Free Morpheme constraint / Chapter 2.1.2 --- The Equivalence constraint / Chapter 2.1.3 --- The Government constraint / Chapter 2.1.4 --- The Matrix Code Principle / Chapter 2.1.5 --- The Dual Structure Principle / Chapter 2.2 --- Language´ؤspecific constraints / Chapter 2.2.1 --- """Closed-Class"" word constraint" / Chapter 2.2.2 --- "The ""fragment"" constraint" / Chapter 2.2.3 --- "The ""innermost"" constituent constraint" / Chapter 3. --- A Linguistic Description of Cantonese -English code- mixing / Chapter 3.1 --- Data / Chapter 3.2 --- The major patterns and the minor patterns / Chapter 3.3 --- The major patterns: single word cases / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Verb-mixing / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Noun-mixing / Chapter 3.3.3 --- Adjective or adverb-mixing / Chapter 3.3.4 --- Preposition or conjunction-mixing / Chapter 3.4 --- The minor patterns: fragments / Chapter 3.4.1 --- Form and structure / Chapter 3.4.2 --- Cantonese fragments under English phrase structure / Chapter 4. --- Critique of the major constraints and principles / Chapter 4.1 --- The Free Morpheme constraint / Chapter 4.2 --- The Equivalence constraint / Chapter 4.3 --- The Government constraint / Chapter 4.4 --- The Matrix Code principle / Chapter 4.5 --- The Dual Structure principle / Chapter 5. --- Revised constraints / Chapter 5.1 --- The Category Equivalence constraint / Chapter 5.1.1 --- Generalizations from the patterns / Chapter 5.1.2 --- Rationale of the Category Equivalence constraint / Chapter 5.1.3 --- Categorical non-equivalence / Chapter 5.1.4 --- Insufficiency / Chapter 5.2 --- The Bound Morpheme constraint / Chapter 5.3 --- The Specifier constraint / Chapter 6. --- Processes / Chapter 6.1 --- Previous Models / Chapter 6.1.1 --- The Equivalence model / Chapter 6.1.2 --- The Matrix Code model / Chapter 6.1.3 --- The Dual Structure model / Chapter 6.2 --- A revised model / Chapter 6.2.1 --- Assumptions / Chapter 6.2.1.1 --- The Distinction between the matrix code (MC) and the embedded code (EC) / Chapter 6.2.1.2 --- Interface between MC grammar and EC lexicon / Chapter 6.2.1.3 --- "Interface between EC lexicon, EC grammar and MC grammar" / Chapter 6.2.1.4 --- Other interfaces not activated / Chapter 6.3 --- Constraints revisited / Chapter 7. --- The Case of Nonce Borrowing / Chapter 7.1 --- Definitions / Chapter 7.2 --- Objections / Notes / Chapter Appendix: --- A Database of Cantonese-English Code´ؤmixing / Bibliography

by Ling Ling Peng. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1999. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 107-112). / Abstract also in Chinese. / Abstract --- p.ii / Acknowledgement --- p.iv / Contents --- p.v / Tables and charts --- p.vii / Abbreviation --- p.viii / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction and theoretical considerations --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- One unitary language system、or two separate language systems? --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- The autonomous development hypothesis vs. the interdependent development hypothesis --- p.6 / Chapter 1.3 --- Language dominance --- p.12 / Chapter 1.4 --- The research goal and outline of the thesis --- p.15 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- The development of wh-questions in monolingual English and Cantonese Children --- p.19 / Chapter 2.1 --- The syntax of English wh-questions --- p.19 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- The landing site of wh-expressions --- p.19 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- Types of wh-questions --- p.22 / Chapter 2.2 --- The acquisition of wh-questions by monolingual English-speaking children --- p.23 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- The acquisition order of wh-questions --- p.24 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Development of wh-questions in monolingual English-speaking children --- p.26 / Chapter 2.2.2.1 --- Developmental stages --- p.26 / Chapter 2.2.2.2 --- Overall course of development --- p.27 / Chapter 2.2.2.2.1 --- UG and language acquisition --- p.27 / Chapter 2.2.2.2.2 --- General patterns of development of wh-questionsin monolingual English-speaking children --- p.32 / Chapter 2.3 --- The syntax of interrogative wh-questions in Cantonese --- p.39 / Chapter 2.4 --- The acquisition of wh-questions by monolingual Cantonese children --- p.43 / Chapter 2.5 --- Summary --- p.45 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- Methodology / Chapter 3.1 --- Subject --- p.47 / Chapter 3.1.1 --- Family background --- p.47 / Chapter 3.1.2 --- Input for both languages --- p.47 / Chapter 3.1.3 --- Bilingual development in the bilingual child --- p.49 / Chapter 3.2 --- Taping --- p.55 / Chapter 3.3 --- Transcription --- p.56 / Chapter 3.4 --- Sampling and data analysis --- p.56 / Chapter Chapter 4 --- The acquisition of wh-questions by one Cantonese-English bilingual child --- p.58 / Chapter 4.1 --- UG and bilingual acquisition --- p.58 / Chapter 4.2 --- The acquisition of wh-questions in Cantonese by the bilingual child --- p.59 / Chapter 4.3 --- The acquisition of wh-questions in English by the bilingual child --- p.66 / Chapter 4.3.1 --- The acquisition order --- p.66 / Chapter 4.3.2 --- Position of wh-expressions --- p.68 / Chapter 4.3.3 --- Subject-auxiliary inversion in wh-questions --- p.77 / Chapter 4.4 --- Summary --- p.81 / Chapter Chapter 5 --- Discussion and conclusion --- p.82 / Chapter 5.1 --- The acquisition order of wh-questions in the bilingual child's English --- p.82 / Chapter 5.2 --- Placement of wh-expressions in the bilingual child's English --- p.86 / Chapter 5.3 --- Subject 一 auxiliary inversion in wh-questions in the bilingual child's English --- p.93 / Chapter 5.4 --- Overall course of development of what-questions in the bilingual child --- p.94 / Chapter 5.5 --- Conclusion --- p.100 / Chapter 5.5.1 --- Summary of findings --- p.100 / Chapter 5.5.2 --- Suggestions for further studies --- p.102 / References --- p.107 / Appendix --- p.113

Chan Wing Shan Angel. / Thesis submitted in: Novemeber 2003. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2004. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 152-157). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Acknowledgements / List of Abbreviations / List of Tables and Figures / Abstract / Chapter Chapter One --- Introduction / Chapter 1.0 --- Introduction / Chapter 1.1 --- The Target Construction / Chapter 1.1.1 --- The Canonical [bei2-T-R] Double Object Form / Chapter 1.1.2 --- The Non-Canonical [bei2-R-T] Double Object Form / Chapter 1.1.3 --- The Non-Canonical [bei2-T-bei2-R] Serial Verb Form / Chapter 1.1.4 --- The Extended bei2-Da.tive / Chapter 1.2 --- A Review of Cantonese Dative Constructions / Chapter Chapter Two --- Theoretical Background / Chapter 2.0 --- Introduction / Chapter 2.1 --- The Markedness Hypothesis / Chapter 2.2 --- The Iconicity Hypothesis / Chapter 2.3 --- The Input Frequency Hypothesis / Chapter 2.4 --- Relevance to Cantonese / Chapter 2.4.1 --- The Markedness Hypothesis: Empirical Predictions / Chapter 2.4.2 --- The Iconicity Hypothesis: Empirical Predictions / Chapter 2.4.3 --- The Input Frequency Hypothesis: Empirical Predictions / Chapter 2.4.4 --- An Interim Summary of Empirical Predictions / Chapter 2.5 --- The Null Dative Marker Hypothesis / Chapter 2.6 --- Conceptualization of End-State Knowledge: Construction Grammar / Chapter 2.7 --- Introducing the Usage-Based Theory to Child Language Acquisition / Chapter Chapter Three --- The Input Properties Hypothesis and Adult Cantonese Input / Chapter 3.0 --- Introduction / Chapter 3.1 --- Schematization / Chapter 3.2 --- The Input Properties Hypothesis / Chapter 3.3 --- Two Empirical Hypotheses on the Theme-Recipient Asymmetry / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Unexpressed Arguments: The Theme Versus The Recipient / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Susceptibility to Displacement: The Theme Versus The Recipient / Chapter 3.4 --- A Corpus Study Of Adult Input / Chapter 3.4.1 --- Methodology For Adult Input Analysis / Chapter 3.4.2 --- Corpus Findings / Chapter 3.4.2.1 --- The Missing Theme: bei2-Datives with Frequent Null Theme / Chapter 3.4.2.2 --- The Non-Canonical [bei2-R-T] Form / Chapter 3.4.2.3 --- The Non-Canonical [bei2-T-bei2-R] Form / Chapter 3.4.2.4 --- The Frequent [bei2-R] Sequence / Chapter 3.5 --- Cantonese Adult Input Properties: Implications for Early Schematization / Chapter 3.6 --- Chapter Summary / Chapter Chapter Four --- Methodology and Early Developmental Findings / Chapter 4.0 --- Introduction / Chapter 4.1 --- Methodology / Chapter 4.1.1 --- Longitudinal Corpus Data / Chapter 4.1.1.1 --- Monolingual Child Data: The Hong Kong Cantonese Child Language Corpus (CANCORP) / Chapter 4.1.1.2 --- Cantonese-English Bilingual Child Data: The Hong Kong Bilingual Child Language Corpus / Chapter 4.1.2 --- "Cantonese-English Bilingual Diary Data: Cheung (2002, p.c.)" / Chapter 4.1.3 --- Clinical Child Data: Local Speech Therapists in Hong Kong / Chapter 4.1.4 --- Procedures for Data Analysis / Chapter 4.2 --- Early Developmental Findings / Chapter 4.2.1 --- Non-Full bei2-Datives Before Full bei2-Datives / Chapter 4.2.2 --- The First Spontaneous Use of Full bei2-Datives / Chapter 4.2.3 --- All Full bei2-Datives Attested / Chapter 4.2.4 --- Early Preference for Non-Canonical Forms / Chapter 4.2.4.1 --- Possible Priming Effects / Chapter 4.2.4.2 --- Placement of Pauses / Chapter 4.2.5 --- The Late Acquisition of the Canonical [bei2-T-R] Form / Chapter 4.2.6 --- The Non-Target Use of bei2-Datives / Chapter 4.2.6.1 --- The Non-Target [bei2-R-T] Form / Chapter 4.2.6.2 --- The Non-Target [bei2-T-bei2-R] Form / Chapter 4.3 --- Usage Patterns in Older Children / Chapter 4.4 --- Summary of Major Findings / Chapter Chapter Five --- Discussion of Findings / Chapter 5.0 --- Introduction / Chapter 5.1 --- A Review of Established Empirical Predictions / Chapter 5.2 --- The Markedness Hypothesis / Chapter 5.3 --- The Iconicity Hypothesis / Chapter 5.4 --- The Input Frequency Hypothesis / Chapter 5.5 --- The Input Properties Hypothesis / Chapter 5.6 --- Markedness From the UG perspective / Chapter 5.7 --- The Early Preference for Non-Canonical Forms: A Functional Perspective / Chapter 5.8 --- The Source of the Early Non-Canonical bei2-datives: A Usage-Based Perspective / Chapter 5.8.1 --- The Early [bei2-R-T] Form / Chapter 5.8.1.1 --- Against Learning Directly From The Adult Speech Models / Chapter 5.8.1.2 --- Against Generating Directly From The [bei2-R-T] Verb Specific Schema / Chapter 5.8.1.3 --- Against Overgeneralizing the Abstract [V-R-T] Schema / Chapter 5.8.2 --- The Early [bei2-T-bei2-R] Form / Chapter 5.8.2.1 --- Against Learning Directly From The Adult Speech Models / Chapter 5.8.2.2 --- On Overgeneralizing The [V-T-bei2-R] Schema / Chapter 5.9 --- Remaining Questions / Chapter 5.10 --- Chapter Summary / Chapter Chapter Six --- Conclusions and Further Research / Chapter 6.0 --- Introduction / Chapter 6.1 --- Principal Conclusions / Chapter 6.2 --- Contributions / Chapter 6.3 --- Suggestions for Further Research / Chapter 6.3.1 --- Elicited Production Studies / Chapter 6.3.2 --- Comprehension Studies / Chapter 6.3.3 --- Cross-Linguistic Investigations / Appendices / References

本文研究兩位粤英雙語兒童的詞彙發展，當中以研究他們的名詞及動詞發展模式為主。在過往關於兒童詞彙發展的文獻中，很多學者均對於名詞傾向(noun bias)是否屬於普遍存在(universal)的現象，存着不少的討論。大部份學者於英語等語言中發現此名詞傾向，並認為是由於名詞概念對兒童而言較為明顯及容易掌握的緣故。然而，在普通話及粤語等語言中，學者並未能找出此名詞傾向，並認為原因是這些語言的結構特徵都比較強調動詞，例如代名詞省略(pro-drop)等。本文透過語料庫，追蹤性研究兩位粤英雙語兒童的詞彙發展，並把結果與相應的單語兒童作比較，從而討論詞類傾向的跨語言共性(universality)及語言特定(language-specific)的因素，以及在詞彙發展中的跨語言互動(cross-linguistic influence)。 / 本文的研究結果，顯示了在兒童的詞彙發展中，名詞傾向屬於語言特定(language-specific)的現象，而非所有語言的共性。在整段由1;06至3;00追蹤期之中，單語及雙語兒童的英語詞彙發展均持續地出現了名詞傾向的現象，而這現象並沒有在粤語中出現。英語的名詞比例平均維持在60%以上，英語名詞也發展得比動詞快。相反，在整段追蹤期之中，粤語的名詞比例均比英語的小。語言特定的因素(language-specific factors)，包括零論元是否被認可(licensing of null arguments)，以及名詞及動詞的詞彙化模式(lexicalization patterns of nouns and verbs)，能以解釋為何名詞傾向能在英語中找到，而不能在粤語中找到。 / 另外，本研究也發現粤英雙語兒童的詞彙發展中的跨語言互動(cross-linguistic influence)，他們粤英之間的名詞及動詞對應詞(translation equivalents)收窄了這兩種語言之間在名詞及動詞比例上的差異。英語方面，比例上，雙語兒童比單語兒童獲得更多動詞。由於粤語的語言結構特徵較強調動詞，因此雙語兒童首先獲得很多粤語動詞，這促使他們獲得這些動詞的英語對應詞(English equivalents)，從而降低了其英語名詞比例。而粤語方面，比例上，雙語兒童比單語兒童獲得更多名詞。由於英語的語言結構特徵較重視名詞，因此雙語兒童首先獲得很多英語名詞，這促使他們獲得這些名詞的粤語對應詞(Cantonese equivalents)，從而提升了其粤語名詞比例。 / This thesis investigates the lexical development in two Cantonese-English bilingual children, focusing on the developmental patterns of their nouns and verbs. In the literature, a controversial issue centres on whether the noun bias is universal in children’s lexical development. Many researchers have found a noun bias in English and other languages, and attributed it to the advantage that the concepts encoded by nouns are easier and more salient for children. However, the noun bias was not observed in children acquiring languages like Mandarin and Cantonese, and some researchers have attributed this to properties of these languages including pro-drop which favour verbs. We conduct a longitudinal corpus-based study of two bilingual children in comparison with their monolingual counterparts, to address the issues of universality and language-specific effects of word category bias and cross-linguistic influence at the lexical level. / The findings show evidence that the noun bias is language-specific but not universal in the lexical development of children. A noun bias was consistently shown in English but not in Cantonese for both monolingual and bilingual children throughout the period of investigation from 1;06 to 3;00. In English, the proportion of nouns to nouns + verbs remained greater than 60% on average and nouns always developed faster than verbs. In contrast, whereas the proportion of nouns to nouns + verbs in Cantonese remained lower than that in English for the entire period of investigation. We argue that language-specific factors such as the licensing of null arguments and the lexicalization patterns of nouns and verbs can account for the differences in the occurrence of noun bias in children’s lexical development in English and Cantonese. / Evidence for cross-linguistic influence is also observed in the lexical development in Cantonese-English bilingual children. Their translation equivalents for nouns and verbs between English and Cantonese narrow the differences in the proportion of nouns and verbs between these two languages. In English, the bilingual children acquired proportionately more verbs than their monolingual counterparts. Having acquired many verbs first in Cantonese, a pro-drop language which favours verbs, facilitated the bilingual children’s acquisition of the English equivalents of these verbs, leading to a decrease in the proportion of nouns to nouns + verbs in English. In Cantonese, the bilingual children had a greater proportion of nouns than their monolingual peers. Having acquired many nouns first in English, a non-pro-drop language which favours nouns, facilitated the bilingual children’s acquisition of the Cantonese equivalents of these nouns, resulting in the increase in the proportion of nouns to nouns + verbs in Cantonese. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Shum, Ka Yee. / "December 2012." / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2013. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 161-168). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstracts also in Chinese; includes Chinese. / Abstract --- p.i / Acknowledgements --- p.v / List of Tables --- p.viii / List of Figures --- p.x / List of Abbreviations --- p.xii / Table of Contents --- p.xiii / Chapter Chapter 1: --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- The “noun bias“ in early lexical development --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- Definition of word categories --- p.2 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- Differences in the distinction of word categories across languages --- p.2 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Definitions of nouns and verbs --- p.3 / Chapter 1.3 --- Defining the “noun bias“ --- p.5 / Chapter 1.3.1 --- Criteria for “noun bias“ in the acquisition --- p.5 / Chapter 1.3.2 --- Criteria for “noun bias“ in this thesis --- p.7 / Chapter 1.4 --- Issues in bilingual lexical development --- p.9 / Chapter 1.5 --- Organization of the thesis --- p.11 / Chapter Chapter 2: --- Issues in Early Lexical Development --- p.14 / Chapter 2.1 --- Gentner’s (1982) claim: The noun bias is universal --- p.14 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- Natural Partitions Hypothesis --- p.14 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- Relational Relativity Hypothesis --- p.15 / Chapter 2.1.3 --- Gentner’s study of monolingual children acquiring six languages (1982) --- p.16 / Chapter 2.1.4 --- Gentner and Boroditsky’s study of Navajo-speaking children (2009) --- p.17 / Chapter 2.1.5 --- Other studies of monolingual children in favour of the noun bias --- p.19 / Chapter 2.2 --- Tardif’s (1996) claim: The noun bias is language-specific --- p.21 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Tardif’s studies of monolingual children acquiring Chinese languages (1996, 2006b, 2008) --- p.21 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Other monolingual studies arguing against the noun bias --- p.27 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Factors leading to the non-existence of a noun bias --- p.29 / Chapter 2.3 --- Reasons for conflicting results --- p.34 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Different methods of sampling children’s vocabulary data --- p.34 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Different ages of the children --- p.35 / Chapter 2.4 --- Previous cross-linguistic longitudinal studies in lexical development --- p.36 / Chapter 2.4.1 --- Liu’s comparative study of lexical development in English, Mandarin and Cantonese (2007) --- p.37 / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Dhillon’s comparative study of lexical development in English, Spanish and Mandarin (2010) --- p.38 / Chapter 2.5 --- Previous studies of lexical development in bilingual children --- p.39 / Chapter 2.5.1 --- Bilingual studies involving two European languages --- p.40 / Chapter 2.5.2 --- Bilingual studies involving an European language and an Asian language --- p.41 / Chapter 2.6 --- Research Questions --- p.44 / Chapter Chapter 3: --- Hypotheses and Methodology --- p.46 / Chapter 3.1 --- Universality of early noun advantage --- p.46 / Chapter 3.2 --- Language-specific properties in relation to lexical category bias --- p.47 / Chapter 3.3 --- Cross-linguistic influence --- p.49 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Cross-linguistic influence in the domain of syntax --- p.49 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Cross-linguistic influence in the domain of lexicon --- p.50 / Chapter 3.3.3 --- Language dominance --- p.51 / Chapter 3.4 --- Methodology --- p.52 / Chapter 3.4.1 --- Subjects --- p.53 / Chapter 3.4.2 --- The monolingual and bilingual data --- p.56 / Chapter 3.4.3 --- Classification of nouns and verbs in Cantonese and English --- p.57 / Chapter 3.4.4 --- Data analysis --- p.68 / Chapter 3.5 --- Summary --- p.73 / Chapter Chapter 4: --- Results and Discussion --- p.74 / Chapter 4.1 --- Lexical composition in early English --- p.75 / Chapter 4.1.1 --- Number of noun types and verb types and N/(N+V) ratios in English --- p.75 / Chapter 4.1.2 --- Number of noun tokens and verb tokens in English --- p.76 / Chapter 4.1.3 --- Cumulative nouns and verbs in English --- p.77 / Chapter 4.1.4 --- Differences between Cantonese-English bilingual children and the monolingual English-speaking child --- p.79 / Chapter 4.1.5 --- Comparison between Cantonese-dominant and English-dominant bilingual children --- p.84 / Chapter 4.1.6 --- Summary --- p.84 / Chapter 4.2 --- Lexical composition in early Cantonese --- p.85 / Chapter 4.2.1 --- Number of noun types and verb types and N/(N+V) ratios in Cantonese --- p.85 / Chapter 4.2.2 --- Number of noun tokens and verb tokens in Cantonese --- p.87 / Chapter 4.2.3 --- Cumulative nouns and verbs in Cantonese --- p.88 / Chapter 4.2.4 --- Differences between Cantonese-English bilingual children and the monolingual Cantonese-speaking child --- p.91 / Chapter 4.2.5 --- Comparison between Cantonese-dominant and English-dominant bilingual children --- p.95 / Chapter 4.2.6 --- Summary --- p.99 / Chapter 4.3 --- Translation equivalents of nouns and verbs in Cantonese-English bilingual children --- p.100 / Chapter 4.3.1 --- English nouns and verbs with Cantonese equivalents --- p.100 / Chapter 4.3.2 --- Cantonese nouns and verbs with English equivalents --- p.104 / Chapter 4.3.3 --- Summary --- p.109 / Chapter 4.4 --- Comparison of lexical composition between Cantonese and English of the bilingual children --- p.109 / Chapter 4.4.1 --- Proportion of nouns to verbs on the basis of word types and cumulative development --- p.110 / Chapter 4.4.2 --- Language-specific considerations in early lexical development --- p.113 / Chapter 4.4.3 --- Summary --- p.124 / Chapter 4.5 --- Analysis of morphological and syntactic markings on nouns and verbs in Cantonese-English bilingual children --- p.124 / Chapter 4.5.1 --- Morphological and syntactic markings on English nouns and verbs --- p.125 / Chapter 4.5.2 --- Morphological and syntactic markings on Cantonese nouns and verbs --- p.130 / Chapter 4.5.3 --- Summary --- p.141 / Chapter 4.6 --- Summary of major findings --- p.141 / Chapter Chapter 5: --- Conclusions --- p.145 / Chapter 5.1 --- Conclusions --- p.145 / Chapter 5.2 --- Limitations and suggestions for further research --- p.147 / Appendices --- p.149 / Chapter Appendix 1: --- Translation equivalents for nouns and verbs in Cantonese-English bilingual children --- p.149 / Chapter Appendix 2: --- Total tokens of five most frequent nouns and five most frequent verbs produced by each child in each language --- p.160 / References --- p.161

Thesis (M.A. (Translation Studies)) --University of Limpopo, 2012 / This study focuses on aspects that form part of the reasons of not having complete bidirectional bilingual dictionaries and to find solutions to those problems. The following dictionaries have been evaluated in this study: Oxford Pukuntšu ya Sekolo School Dictionary (2010), Pharos Popular Northern Sotho Dictionary (2007 & 2009) and Sesotho sa Leboa/English Pukuntšu Dictionary (2006). Most African bilingual dictionaries which are supposed to be bidirectional are not because reversibility is not applied thoroughly. This study focuses on checking how Northern Sotho-English bilingual dictionaries apply the reversibility principle. When evaluating bilingual dictionaries it comes to light that there are a lot of errors that lexicographers commit and these errors negatively affect the process of compiling complete user-friendly bidirectional dictionaries. Having user-friendly bidirectional bilingual dictionaries is very important because dictionaries help different language speakers to learn each other’s language.

<p>The essay deals with different definitions of bilingualism and why people become bilingual. Both positive and negative aspects of bilingualism are considered. It also deals with the term code-switching and when bilingual people code-switch. The material used in the essay comes from the on-line CHILD corpus of child language. The charts and the graph in the essay have been produced from a study made by the author of this essay. This study includes a bilingual girl of the age one year and three months up until the age two years and seven months. It includes the mean length of her utterances, how much the child uses the different word classes and different semantic groups, as well as how much the child code-switches in different ages. The results show that the mean length of utterances in Spanish most of the time is increasing, while the mean length of utterances in English is increasing until the child is just over two years old and then it fluctuated considerably.</p>

<p>This work investigates how educationalists on a multi-cultural school work with language development of bilingually children. The children in both investigated classes have a different mother tongue which means that they have Swedish as a second language, they are bilingually. It’s relevant for me to know if there is any consideration taken for these bilingually children. If yes, then in what way? The method which is used is a two weeks observation of two classes in the third grade, complemented with semi- structured interviews with the two class teachers. Both educationalists are bilingually and have great experience of working with bilingually children.</p><p>The result of the investigation was that enough consideration wasn’t taking place for the bilingually children, This was caused by external circumcises, with bilingually children drastically increasing in school today have lead to too many children per teacher which has caused disturbance in the classroom. The educationalists work with bilingualism unconsciousness and they don’t put a lot of importance into every individual because of the fact that all children in the classes are bilingually, which leads to the education not being individually adapted. They are instead putting a great efforts into simplify and change the tasks so that the children easier understands them. They use a lot of both reading and writing as a way of working to stimulate the children’s language development. Something that can have a great significance for the children and their language development is the first mother tongue teaching which they have at school. There isn’t any cooperation between the class teachers and the mother tongue teachers at the moment.</p>