Les défis conjoints du changement climatique d'origine anthropique et la diminution des réserves de combustibles fossiles sont le moteur de recherche intense pour des sources d'énergie alternatives. Une avenue attrayante est d'utiliser un processus biologique pour produire un biocarburant. Parmi les différentes options en matière de biocarburants, le bio-hydrogène gazeux est un futur vecteur énergétique attrayant en raison de son efficacité potentiellement plus élevé de conversion de puissance utilisable, il est faible en génération inexistante de polluants et de haute densité d'énergie. Cependant, les faibles rendements et taux de production ont été les principaux obstacles à l'application pratique des technologies de bio-hydrogène. Des recherches intensives sur bio-hydrogène sont en cours, et dans les dernières années, plusieurs nouvelles approches ont été proposées et étudiées pour dépasser ces inconvénients. À cette fin, l'objectif principal de cette thèse était d'améliorer le rendement en hydrogène moléculaire avec un accent particulier sur l'ingénierie métabolique et l’utilisation de bioprocédés à variables indépendantes. Une de nos hypothèses était que la production d’hydrogène pourrait être améliorée et rendue plus économiquement viable par ingénierie métabolique de souches d’Escherichia coli producteurs d’hydrogène en utilisant le glucose ainsi que diverses autres sources de carbone, y compris les pentoses. Les effets du pH, de la température et de sources de carbone ont été étudiés. La production maximale d'hydrogène a été obtenue à partir de glucose, à un pH initial de 6.5 et une température de 35°C. Les études de cinétiques de croissance ont montré que la μmax était 0.0495 h-1 avec un Ks de 0.0274 g L-1 lorsque le glucose est la seule source de carbone en milieu minimal M9. .Parmi les nombreux sucres et les dérivés de sucres testés, les rendements les plus élevés d'hydrogène sont avec du fructose, sorbitol et D-glucose; 1.27, 1.46 et 1.51 mol H2 mol-1 de substrat, respectivement. En outre, pour obtenir les interactions entre les variables importantes et pour atteindre une production maximale d'hydrogène, un design 3K factoriel complet Box-Behnken et la méthodologie de réponse de surface (RSM) ont été employées pour la conception expérimentale et l'analyse de la souche d'Escherichia coli DJT135. Le rendement en hydrogène molaire maximale de 1.69 mol H2 mol-1 de glucose a été obtenu dans les conditions optimales de 75 mM de glucose, à 35°C et un pH de 6.5. Ainsi, la RSM avec un design Box-Behken était un outil statistique utile pour atteindre des rendements plus élevés d'hydrogène molaires par des organismes modifiés génétiquement. Ensuite, l'expression hétérologue de l’hydrogénases soluble [Ni-Fe] de Ralstonia eutropha H16 (l'hydrogénase SH) a tenté de démontrer que la mise en place d'une voie capable de dériver l'hydrogène à partir de NADH pourrait surpasser le rendement stoechiométrique en hydrogène.. L’expression a été démontrée par des tests in vitro de l'activité enzymatique. Par ailleurs, l'expression de SH a restaurée la croissance en anaérobie de souches mutantes pour adhE, normalement inhibées en raison de l'incapacité de réoxyder le NADH. La mesure de la production d'hydrogène in vivo a montré que plusieurs souches modifiées métaboliquement sont capables d'utiliser l'hydrogénase SH pour dériver deux moles d’hydrogène par mole de glucose consommé, proche du maximum théorique. Une autre stratégie a montré que le glycérol brut pourrait être converti en hydrogène par photofermentation utilisant Rhodopseudomonas palustris par photofermentation. Les effets de la source d'azote et de différentes concentrations de glycérol brut sur ce processus ont été évalués. À 20 mM de glycérol, 4 mM glutamate, 6.1 mol hydrogène / mole de glycérol brut ont été obtenus dans des conditions optimales, un rendement de 87% de la théorie, et significativement plus élevés que ce qui a été réalisé auparavant. En prolongement de cette étude, l'optimisation des paramètres a également été utilisée. Dans des conditions optimales, une intensité lumineuse de 175 W/m2, 30 mM glycérol et 4.5 mM de glutamate, 6.69 mol hydrogène / mole de glycérol brut ont été obtenus, soit un rendement de 96% de la valeur théorique. La détermination de l'activité de la nitrogénase et ses niveaux d'expression ont montré qu'il y avait relativement peu de variation de la quantité de nitrogénase avec le changement des variables alors que l'activité de la nitrogénase variait considérablement, avec une activité maximale (228 nmol de C2H4/ml/min) au point central optimal. Dans la dernière section, la production d'hydrogène à partir du glucose via la photofermentation en une seule étape a été examinée avec la bactérie photosynthétique Rhodobacter capsulatus JP91 (hup-). La méthodologie de surface de réponse avec Box-Behnken a été utilisée pour optimiser les variables expérimentales de façon indépendante, soit la concentration de glucose, la concentration du glutamate et l'intensité lumineuse, ainsi que d'examiner leurs effets interactifs pour la maximisation du rendement en hydrogène moléculaire. Dans des conditions optimales, avec une intensité lumineuse de 175 W/m2, 35 mM de glucose, et 4.5 mM de glutamate,, un rendement maximal d'hydrogène de 5.5 (± 0.15) mol hydrogène /mol glucose, et un maximum d'activité de la nitrogénase de 246 (± 3.5) nmol C2H4/ml/min ont été obtenus. L'analyse densitométrique de l'expression de la protéine-Fe nitrogenase dans les différentes conditions a montré une variation significative de l'expression protéique avec un maximum au point central optimisé. Même dans des conditions optimales pour la production d'hydrogène, une fraction significative de la protéine Fe a été trouvée dans l'état ADP-ribosylée, suggérant que d'autres améliorations des rendements pourraient être possibles. À cette fin, un mutant amtB dérivé de Rhodobacter capsulatus JP91 (hup-) a été créé en utilisant le vecteur de suicide pSUP202. Les résultats expérimentaux préliminaires montrent que la souche nouvellement conçue métaboliquement, R. capsulatus DG9, produit 8.2 (± 0.06) mol hydrogène / mole de glucose dans des conditions optimales de cultures discontinues (intensité lumineuse, 175 W/m2, 35 mM de glucose et 4.5 mM glutamate). Le statut d'ADP-ribosylation de la nitrogénase-protéine Fe a été obtenu par Western Blot pour la souche R. capsulatus DG9. En bref, la production d'hydrogène est limitée par une barrière métabolique. La principale barrière métabolique est due au manque d'outils moléculaires possibles pour atteindre ou dépasser le rendement stochiométrique en bio-hydrogène depuis les dernières décennies en utilisant les microbes. À cette fin, une nouvelle approche d’ingénierie métabolique semble très prometteuse pour surmonter cette contrainte vers l'industrialisation et s'assurer de la faisabilité de la technologie de la production d'hydrogène. Dans la présente étude, il a été démontré que l’ingénierie métabolique de bactéries anaérobiques facultatives (Escherichia coli) et de bactéries anaérobiques photosynthétiques (Rhodobacter capsulatus et Rhodopseudomonas palustris) peuvent produire de l'hydrogène en tant que produit majeur à travers le mode de fermentation par redirection métabolique vers la production d'énergie potentielle. D'autre part, la méthodologie de surface de réponse utilisée dans cette étude représente un outil potentiel pour optimiser la production d'hydrogène en générant des informations appropriées concernant la corrélation entre les variables et des producteurs de bio-de hydrogène modifiés par ingénierie métabolique. Ainsi, un outil d'optimisation des paramètres représente une nouvelle avenue pour faire un pont entre le laboratoire et la production d'hydrogène à l'échelle industrielle en fournissant un modèle mathématique potentiel pour intensifier la production de bio-hydrogène. Par conséquent, il a été clairement mis en évidence dans ce projet que l'effort combiné de l'ingénierie métabolique et la méthodologie de surface de réponse peut rendre la technologie de production de bio-hydrogène potentiellement possible vers sa commercialisation dans un avenir rapproché. / The joint challenges of anthropogenic climate change and dwindling fossil fuel reserves are driving intense research into alternative energy sources. One attractive avenue is to use a biological process to produce a biofuel. Among the various biofuel options, biohydrogen gas is an attractive future energy carrier due to its potentially higher efficiency of conversion to usable power, low to non-existent generation of pollutants and high energy density. However, low yields and production rates have been major barriers to the practical application of biohydrogen technologies. Intensive research on biohydrogen is underway, and in the last few years several novel approaches have been proposed and studied to surpass these drawbacks. To this end the main aim of this thesis was to improve the molar hydrogen yield with special emphasis of metabolic engineering using the interactive effect with bioprocess independent variable. One investigated hypothesis was that H2 production could be improved and made more economically viable by metabolic engineering on the facultative hydrogen producer Escherichia coli from glucose as well as various other carbon sources, including pentoses. The effects of pH, temperature and carbon source were investigated in batch experiments. Maximal hydrogen production from glucose was obtained at an initial pH of 6.5 and temperature of 35°C. Kinetic growth studies showed that the μmax was 0.0495 h−1 with a Ks of 0.0274 g L−1 when glucose was the sole carbon source in M9 (1X) minimal medium. Among the many sugar and sugar derivatives tested, hydrogen yields were highest with fructose, sorbitol and d-glucose; 1.27, 1.46 and 1.51 mol H2 mol−1 substrate respectively. In addition, to obtain the interactions between the variables important for achieving maximum hydrogen production, a 3K full factorial Box–Behnken design and response surface methodology (RSM) were employed for experimental design and analysis on a metabolically engineered Escherichia coli strain, DJT135. A maximum molar hydrogen yield of 1.69 mol H2 mol−1 glucose was obtained under the optimal conditions of 75 mM glucose, 35°C and pH 6.5. Thus, RSM with Box–Behnken design was a useful statistical tool for achieving higher molar hydrogen yields by metabolically engineered organisms. Furthermore, the heterologous expression of the soluble [Ni-Fe] hydrogenase from Ralstonia eutropha H16 (the SH hydrogenase) was attempted to demonstrate the introduction of a pathway capable of deriving hydrogen from NADH to surpass the stoichiometric molar hydrogen yield. Successful expression was demonstrated by in vitro assay of enzyme activity. Moreover, expression of SH restored anaerobic growth on glucose to adhE strains, normally blocked for growth due to the inability to re-oxidize NADH. Measurement of in vivo hydrogen production showed that several metabolically engineered strains were capable of using the SH hydrogenase to derive 2 mol H2 per mol of glucose consumed, close to the theoretical maximum. Using another strategy, it was shown that crude glycerol could be converted to hydrogen, a possible future clean energy carrier, by photofermentation using Rhodopseudomonas palustris through photofermentation. Here, the effects of nitrogen source and different concentrations of crude glycerol on this process were assessed. At 20 mM glycerol, 4 mM glutamate, 6.1 mol hydrogen/mole of crude glycerol were obtained under optimal conditions, a yield of 87% of the theoretical, and significantly higher than what was achieved previously. As a continuation of this study, multiprocess parameter optimization was also involved. Under optimal conditions, a light intensity of 175 W/m2, 30 mM glycerol, and 4.5 mM glutamate, 6.69 mol hydrogen/mole of crude glycerol were obtained, a yield 96% of theoretical. Determination of nitrogenase activity and expression levels showed that there was relatively little variation in levels of nitrogenase protein with changes in process variables whereas nitrogenase activity varied considerably, with maximal nitrogenase activity (228 nmol of C2H4/ml/min) at the optimal central point. In the final section, hydrogen production from glucose via single-stage photofermentation was examined with the photosynthetic bacterium Rhodobacter capsulatus JP91 (hup-). Response surface methodology with Box–Behnken design was used to optimize the independent experimental variables of glucose concentration, glutamate concentration and light intensity, as well as examining their interactive effects for maximization of molar hydrogen yield. Under optimal condition with a light intensity of 175 W/m2, 35 mM glucose, and 4.5 mM glutamate, a maximum hydrogen yield of 5.5 (±0.15) mol H2/mol glucose, and a maximum nitrogenase activity of 246 (±3.5) nmol C2H4/ml/min were obtained. Densitometric analysis of nitrogenase Fe-protein expression under different conditions showed significant variation in Fe-protein expression with a maximum at the optimized central point. Even under optimum conditions for hydrogen production, a significant fraction of the Fe-protein was found in the ADP-ribosylated state, suggesting that further improvement in yields might be possible. To this end an AmtB- derivative of Rhodobacter capsulatus JP91 (hup-) was created by conjugating in amtB::Km using the suicide vector pSUP202. Preliminary experimental results showed that the newly metabolically engineered strain, R. capsulatus DG9, produced 8.2 (±0.06) mol hydrogen/mole of glucose under optimal conditions in batch cultures (light intensity, 175 W/m2; 35 mM glucose, and 4.5 mM glutamate). Western blot analyses of the ADP-ribosylation status of the nitrogenase Fe-protein were investigated on metabolically engineered strain R. capsulatus DG9. In brief, the progress on hydrogen production technology has been limited due to the metabolic barrier. The major metabolic barrier is due to lacking of potential consistent molecular tools to reach or surpass the stochiometric biohydrogen yield since last decades using microbes. To this end a novel approach “metabolic engineering” seems very promising to overcome this constraint towards industrialization to ensure the feasibility of hydrogen production technology. In this present study it has been shown that metabolically engineered facultative (Escherichia coli) anaerobe and photosynthetic bacteria (Rhodobacter capsulatus and Rhodopseudomonas palustris) can produce hydrogen as a major product through fermentative mode by metabolic redirection toward potential energy generation. On the other hand, response surface methodology has depicted in this study as another potential tool to statistically optimize the hydrogen production by generating suitable information concerning interactive correlation between process variables and metabolically engineered biohydrogen producers. Thus, multi process parameter optimization tool has been creating a novel avenue to make a crosslink between lab scale and pilot scale hydrogen production by providing potential mathematical model for scaling up biohydrogen production using metabolically engineered biohydrogen producers. Therefore, it has been clearly revealed in this project that combined effort of metabolic engineering and response surface methodology can make biohydrogen production technology potentially feasible towards its commercialization in near future.

En 2011, cinq (5) cultivars de saules ont été sélectionnés pour leur rendement en biomasse. Ils ont été plantés sur quatre sites de la province du Québec et ont été maintenus selon le protocole de la culture intensive sur courtes rotations (CICR) afin de déterminer leur potentiel pour la bioénergie dans des environnements contrastés. La composition et l’anatomie du bois de ces cultivars ont été caractérisées et comparés en fonction des conditions environnementales caractéristiques de chaque site. La hauteur et le diamètre à la base des plantes diffèrent selon les sites. Ainsi, les cultivars répondent de façon spécifique aux conditions pédoclimatiques dans lesquelles ils sont cultivés. L’effet de l’environnement n’a pas été mis en évidence sur la teneur en lignine des cultivars. Cependant, un effet génotypique a pu être constaté soulignant l’importance de la sélectivité des cultivars. La densité du bois a étonnamment conservé la même hiérarchie génotypique entre les sites. À l’opposé, l’anatomie du bois présente des différences notamment au niveau des caractéristiques des fibres et des vaisseaux. Une forte teneur en polyphénols ainsi que des fibres moins larges et des vaisseaux plus nombreux ont été observés sur le site dont le bois est le plus dense supposant l’effet probable d’un stress abiotique. De plus, deux fois plus de fibres gélatineuses, fibres riches en cellulose, ont été identifiées sur ce site montrant un intérêt pour la production de bioéthanol. / In 2011, five (5) willow cultivars were selected for biomass yield. They were planted according to SRC (Short Rotation Coppice) protocol on four sites in Quebec (Canada) to determine their bioenergy potential in contrasting environments. Wood composition and anatomical traits were characterized and compared between both genotypes and environmental growing conditions. Tree height and stem diameter differed between sites, and pedoclimatic conditions more favorable for willow growth were identified. However, each cultivar showed a specific response to its environment. While no significant variation in lignin content was observed between sites, a clonal effect confirms the importance of cultivar selection. Surprisingly, the pattern of genotype variability in stem density was the same on all sites. Wood anatomy differed on fiber and vessel traits between high and low wood density sites, which suggests a probable effect of an abiotic stress. Furthermore, twice as many cellulose-rich G fibers were also found at the most dense site, evidence of potential for use in bioethanol production.

Les hydrogénases sont les enzymes responsables de la conversion de l'H2. De part leur efficacité et spécificité vis-à-vis de l'oxydation de l'H2, elles apparaissent comme des biocatalyseurs potentiels dans les biopiles à combustible. Dans cet objectif, nous avons étudié l'immobilisation fonctionnelle sur diverses électrodes de l'hydrogénase membranaire tolérante à l'O2 de la bactérie hyperthermophile Aquifex aeolicus. Par une approche couplée d'électrochimie, de microscopie et de spectroscopie, il est montré que l'orientation de l'hydrogénase sur une électrode n'est pas contrôlée par des interactions électrostatiques mais hydrophobes. Ce contrôle est lié à l'environnement spécifique du dernier relais électronique en surface de l'enzyme. En particulier, l'hélice transmembranaire hydrophobe entourée de détergent est impliquée dans l'immobilisation. Cette orientation spécifique induit la nécessité d'un médiateur redox pour l'oxydation de l'H2 sur une interface hydrophobe. A contrario, l'hydrogénase adopte une multitude d'orientations sur surfaces chargées. Dans ces conditions, une connexion directe efficace des enzymes est obtenue, mais aussi l'augmentation du courant global par médiation de l'oxydation de l'H2. La définition des paramètres d'immobilisation de l'hydrogénase, a permis de développer des interfaces électrochimiques propres à l'augmentation des courants. En couplant une biocathode basée sur la bilirubin oxidase pour la réduction de l'O2, une biopile H2/O2 a été construite basée à l'anode sur l'hydrogénase d'Aquifex aeolicus. / Hydrogenases are the key enzymes for H2 conversion in many microorganisms. They present high specificity and efficiency towards H2 oxidations. Consequently, they appear as attracting biocatalysts in view of the development of biofuel cells. Within that goal, we have studied in this work the functional immobilization of O2-tolerant [NiFe] hydrogenase from the hyperthermophilic bacterium Aquifex aeolicus. Using electrochemistry, microscopy and spectroscopy, including PM-IRRAS, it is demonstrated that hydrogenase orientation on electrode interface is not controlled by electrostatic interactions but by hydrophobic interactions. The control of the orientation is driven by the environment of the last electron relay located at the surface of the enzyme. The hydrophobic transmembrane helix which is surrounded by neutral detergent is directly involved in the immobilization process. This specific orientation on hydrophobic interface induces the need for a redox mediator in order to achieve H2 oxidation. Conversely, hydrogenase adopts multiple orientations on charged interfaces. As a consequence, a direct and efficient connexion of enzymes is obtained, but also the increase in oxidation current is obtained due the mediated electrocatalysis. The determination of the best parameters for hydrogenase immobilization has allowed to develop new electrochemical interfaces, with increased current densities for H2 oxidation, and increased bioelectrode stability. By coupling a biocathode based on bilirubin oxidase for O2 reduction, a H2/O2 biofuel cell has been built with Aquifex aeolicus hydrogenase as the bioanode.

High-value industrial oils are essential for many processes and have great economic and environmental impacts. The tung tree produces a high-value seed oil. Approximately 80% of tung oil is α-eleostearic acid, which has a high degree of unsaturation thus giving it properties as a drying oil. The identification of the biological components in tung is imperative to further the knowledge of its processes. Four unique tung acyl-CoA binding proteins, VfACBP3a, VfACBP3b, VfACBP4, and VfACBP6 were identified and the genes encoding them were cloned and analyzed to determine their biological roles. The VfACBPs were observed to be similar to other organisms' ACBPs, especially Arabidopsis thaliana. In addition, each gene was expressed in all tung tissues. They were shown to interact with VfDGAT1 and VfDGAT2, two known components of tung lipid metabolism. Finally, VfACBP3a and VfACBP6 were expressed in the seeds of transgenic plants to study the effects of VfACBP expression on seed lipid fatty acid content.

La synthèse de nitriles gras à partir de ressources renouvelables est un domaine qui attire depuis quelques temps les industries de la parfumerie, des polymères et des biocarburants pour avion. Ce travail de thèse s’est plus particulièrement intéressé à réduire de 100°C la température de travail pour les procédés en phase liquide et gaz, au moyen de catalyseurs plus efficaces. Le procédé en phase liquide a été étudié en terme de catalyse homogène et les formes actives à base de zinc ou indium ont été plus particulièrement détaillées ; des conditions ont été établies pour obtenir une réduction de 50°C de la température de travail. Le procédé en phase gaz a été étudié en terme de catalyse hétérogène, les catalyseurs obtenus ou synthétisés étant caractérisés par microcalorimétrie d’adsorption ; des corrélations entre la conversion de l’ester et l’acidité du lit catalytique ont été trouvées à 300°C, et des conditions expérimentales ont été développées pour obtenir une conversion totale à une température réduite de 100°C sur des catalyseurs choisis / The production of fatty nitriles from renewable sources has lately become attractive for the perfume, polymer and aviation biofuel industry. The present work investigated both liquidand gas-phase processes in the aim of developing catalysts working at 200°C, this is 100°C lower than the state-of-the-art. Homogeneous catalysis was described with zinc and indium based species for the liquid-phase process, succeeding in reducing by 50°C the operating temperature. Heterogeneous catalysts with acid-base features were characterized by adsorption calorimetry and tested in the gas-phase process, leading to correlations between acidity and ester conversion at 300°C, while conditions were found on selected catalysts in order for the process to perform the complete conversion of esters into nitriles at 200°C

A miniaturização de uma biocélula a combustível (BC) enzimática de glicose/O2 para aplicação em dispositivos bioeletrônicos implantáveis representa um grande desafio em eletroquímica moderna. Isso porque é preciso desenvolver bioeletrodos com alta atividade bioeletrocatalítica, com enzimas fortemente ligadas a superfície eletródica. Além disso, o próprio processo de micromanipulação é desafiador, uma vez que é desejável obter biocélulas miniaturizadas e com alta densidade de potência. Assim, propõe-se aqui o desenvolvimento de uma BC que atenda os requisitos supracitados. Para isso, desenvolveram-se bioânodos e biocátodos compostos por folhas de grafeno individuais modificadas com as enzimas glicose desidrogenase (GDh) e bilirrubina oxidase (BOx), respectivamente. Eletrodos de grafeno com área de 10-3 cm2 e espessura de 0,9 ± 0,2 nm foram utilizados em um microchip de Si/SiO2. Observou-se que o grafeno transferido para o microchip permanecia com contaminações de cobre, mesmo após a utilização dos métodos químicos tradicionais de remoção desse metal. A presença de cobre é decorrente do processo de fabricação do grafeno, neste caso, a deposição química em fase vapor (CVD). Para remover qualquer resíduo deste metal, submeteu-se o grafeno a um procedimento de remoção eletroquímica de cobre, denominada aqui como e-etching. Uma vez não observada qualquer corrente faradaica residual associada às impurezas, obtiveram-se os bioeletrodos com a GDh e a BOx. Para a imobilização enzimática, utilizou-se a ligação covalente via funcionalização com o ácido 4-aminobenzóico. As curvas de polarização de estado quase-estacionário obtidas com os bioeletrodos em tampão fosfato pH 7,0 revelaram correntes de onset para oxidação de glicose em -0,13 V e redução de oxigênio em 0,45 V. Por fim, os eletrodos foram utilizados em uma BC sem membrana, operando no microchip de Si/SiO2, em eletrólito tampão fosfato saturado com O2 e glicose 8,0 mmol L-1. A BC apresentou um potencial de circuito aberto em 0,55 V, com densidade de potência volumétrica igual a 1,7 W cm-3, o maior valor reportado até os dias de hoje para uma BC. / The miniaturization of a glucose/O2 enzymatic biofuel cell (BFC) for application in implantable bioelectronic devices is a challenge in electrochemistry. For this purpose, the necessity of bioelectrodes development with high biocatalytic activity such as enzymes strongly attached to electrode surfaces is a current trend. Moreover, the micromanipulation procedure itself is a challenge since the obtention of BFCs with high power density is desirable. Then, the present study shows the partial results obtained in the development of a glucose/O2 BFC with the characteristics exemplified. For the later, bioanodes and biocathodes were obtained with single graphene flakes modified with the enzymes glucose dehydrogenase (GDh) and bilirubin oxidase (BOx), respectively. Graphene flakes electrodes with area of about 10-3 cm2 and thickness of 0,9 ± 0,2 nm were used in a Si/SiO2 microchip. It was observed that transferred graphene to the microchip remained with copper/copper oxide contamination even after the use of conventional methodologies for the remotion of the metal from single graphene foils. The presence of the remaining copper is due to the fabrication process of graphene by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). For the remotion of remaining impurities from graphene, the electrochemical remotion of copper from graphene was carried out in acidic media by the so called e-etching procedure. Since no residual faradaic current was observed due to metal/metal oxide impurities in graphene electrodes, the bioelectrodes were obtained with the enzymes GDh and BOx. The covalent functionalisation of graphene with 4-aminobenzoic acid via diazonium coupling reaction was used for the enzymatic immobilization. The quasi-stationary polarization curves obtained with the bioelectrodes in phosphate buffer pH = 7,0 showed onset oxidation current for glucose at -0.13V and reduction of molecular oxygen starting at +0.45V. Finally, the bioelectrodes were used in a membraneless BFC operating in a Si/SiO2 microchip under saturated oxygen and glucose 8 mmol L-1 in the electrolyte media. The BFC showed an open circuit potential at 0.55V and volumetric power density of 1.7 W cm-3, the highest value reported for an enzymatic BFC so far.

La phytoremédiation est un concept pour la dépollution et de réhabilitation des sols et/ou de friches industrielles contaminés par des éléments traces métalliques (ETMs), utilisant les végétaux pour absorber ou immobiliser les contaminants en présence des organismes microbiens de la rhizosphère. Cette technique a pour conséquence une production de biomasse plus ou moins contaminée qu’il est nécessaire de traiter et également de valoriser. Cependant, la présence d’ETMs peut être problématique dans une approche de conversion en bioraffinerie. Pour répondre à cette question, deux espèces ont été étudiées : une plante herbacée hyperaccumulatrice (Noccaea caerulescens) et un ligneux (Salix viminalis). Deux prétraitements ont été sélectionnés pour cette étude : les prétraitements par explosion vapeur et organosolv, en appliquant différentes conditions opératoires, afin (1) de suivre la distribution des ETMs au cours du traitement, (2) de purifier la matière lignocellulosique et (3) d’évaluer l’effet des ETMs sur les étapes ultérieures d’hydrolyse enzymatique et de fermentation. Pour le prétraitement organosolv la majeure partie des ETMs est récupérée dans le résidu solide cellulosique alors que par explosion à la vapeur, les ETMs sont extraits en grande partie dans les effluents aqueux du traitement. La présence d’ETMs dans les pâtes cellulosiques et les hydrolysats ne montre pas d’effet significatif sur la cinétique d’hydrolyse enzymatique et de fermentation. Concernant spécifiquement Noccaea caerulescens des teneurs relativement importantes en pectines ont été observées, ce qui ouvre des perspectives intéressantes pour la valorisation de cette plante par la production d’un biopolymère d’intérêt industriel. Finalement, les résultats obtenus montrent qu’il serait possible de combiner réhabilitation des sols et valorisation en bioraffinerie de biomasses issues de phytotechnologies soit pour la production du bioéthanol ou la production de molécules plateforme / Phytoremediation is a concept for the depollution and rehabilitation of soils and/or industrial wastelands contaminated by metal trace elements (MTEs), using plants to absorb or immobilize contaminants in the presence of microbial organisms in the rhizosphere. This technique results in a more or less contaminated biomass production that must be treated and also recovered. However, the presence of MTEs can be an issue in a biorefinery conversion approach. To address this question, two species were studied: an hyperaccumulator herbaceous plant (Noccaea caerulescens) and a woody plant (Salix viminalis). Two pre-treatments were selected for this study: steam explosion and organosolv pre-treatments, applying different operating conditions, in order to (1) monitor the distribution of MTEs during the process, (2) purify lignocellulosic material and (3) evaluate the effect of MTEs on subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation steps. For organosolv pretreatment, most of the MTEs are recovered in the solid cellulosic residue while by steam explosion, MTEs are mostly extracted in the aqueous effluents of the treatment. The presence of MTEs in cellulosic pastes and hydrolysates does not show a significant effect on the kinetics of enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation. Concerning specifically Noccaea caerulescens, the plant contains relatively high levels of pectins, which opens up interesting prospects for the valorization of this plant through the production of a biopolymer of industrial interest. Finally, the results obtained show that it would be possible to combine soil rehabilitation and biorefinery valorization of biomasses from phytotechnologies for either bioethanol production or the production of platform molecules

O Brasil acumulou a partir de 1940, experiência significativa em matéria de planejamento governamental. Desde as primeiras tentativas, após a Segunda Guerra Mundial, o País procurou criar e implementar inúmeros Planos de Governo, começando com o Plano SALTE em 1947, e, avançando com vários Planos Plurianuais até os dias atuais. O Brasil empreendeu, ao longo das últimas seis décadas, diversas tentativas de planejar e melhor organizar o processo de desenvolvimento econômico nacional. Esta Tese efetua uma avaliação histórica das Políticas Públicas praticadas nos Setores Energético e Industrial para verificar a existência de correlação ou dependência entre elas, desde a metade do século XX até hoje. O Brasil tornou-se mais maduro do ponto de vista industrial, conseguiu avançar no plano tecnológico ao longo desses Planos mas, não obstante progressos setoriais isolados, a sociedade brasileira permaneceu desigual, e continuou a padecer de iniqüidades nos terrenos da educação, da saúde e demais condições de vida para os setores mais desfavorecidos da população. Em função das mudanças políticas, da evolução da demanda de energia e expansão do consumo industrial, este trabalho analisa no período considerado, o comportamento histórico, as tendências econômicas, industriais e energéticas do País. / Brazil has accumulated a significant experience in governmental planning from 1940 onwards. Since the first attempts after the Second World War, the country has tried to create and implement several governmental plans, starting with the SALTE(1) Plan in 1947 and continuing with various other plans until current days. Throughout the last six decades, Brazil has undertaken diverse attempts to plan and better organize the process of national economic development. This thesis presents a historical evaluation of the public politics implemented in the sectors Energy and Industrial to verify the existence of a correlation and dependence between them, from the second half of the twentieth century until today. Brazil has become more mature from the industrial point of view and has managed to progress in technology throughout these plans. However, despite some isolated sector progress, Brazilian society has remained imbalanced and the lower-class continued to suffer from inequality in education, health and living standards. Due to political changes, the evolution of energy demand and industrial consumption expansion, this study analyses in the period mentioned above, the historical behavior; the economic, industrial and energy trends of the country.

No presente trabalho, métodos analíticos empregando a eletroforese capilar com detecção condutométrica sem contato CE - C4D foram desenvolvidos para a determinação de diversas espécies no biodiesel e etanol combustível. A concentração das espécies inorgânicas (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, SO4 2- e PO4 3-) e glicerol no biodiesel são de interesse das agências reguladoras devido à capacidade dessas espécies em formar compostos indesejáveis no motor. A separação dos cátions foi realizada utilizando eletrólito de corrida (BGE) contendo 30 mmol L-1 de Ácido 2-N-morfolino-etanosulfônico (MES) / L-histidina, pH 6. A separação das espécies aniônicas foi realizada em BGE semelhante contendo 0,2 mmol L-1 brometo de cetiltrimetilamônio. Para a determinação do glicerol, que é uma espécie neutra, foi empregada uma etapa de oxidação utilizando periodato. Esta reação é específica para polióis e tem como um dos produtos o iodato. A quantidade de iodato produzida pela reação foi determinada por CE. A separação foi realizada em aproximadamente 1 min, utilizando BGE contendo 30 mmol L-1 de ácido acético, pH 3. Este trabalho também apresenta estudos sobre a formação de ácidos orgânicos de baixo PM durante a etapa de auto-oxidação do biodiesel, uma vez que esta etapa acarreta no aumento da viscosidade e acidez, ocasionando a formação de gomas e sedimentos e, conseqüentemente, o entupimento de filtros de combustíveis. As amostras foram oxidadas utilizando equipamento para teste de oxidação acelerada (Método Rancimat) e CE - C4D foi utilizada para a análise dos produtos iônicos formados. As principais espécies ácidas encontradas foram os ácidos acético e fórmico. Porém, outras espécies são formadas durante esta etapa, tais como os ácidos acrílico, glicólico, glioxílico, láctico e propiônico. Em particular, o ácido glicólico se mostrou uma espécie de grande importância prática, atuando como um marcador do estágio de oxidação do biodiesel, uma vez que este ácido somente é formado após o desencadeamento da auto-oxidação e, além do mais, esta espécie foi observada em amostras de biodiesel de diferentes origens (algodão, soja, palma e sebo bovido). Adicionalmente, métodos para a determinação de Cl-, SO4 2-, formiato, acetato, formaldeído e acetaldeído em etanol combustível são descritos. A separação foi realizada em BGE contendo 20 mmol L-1 de MES / L-histidina e 0,1 mmol L-1 hidróxido de cetiltrimetilamônio, pH 6. Para a separação dos aldeídos por CE, foi realizada a derivatização com bissulfito. O presente trabalho também apresenta um método alternativo para a determinação do teor de água e de álcool em amostras de etanol combustível. A estratégia descrita é baseada na formação de monoalquil carbonatos (MAC) produzidos pela reação de um álcool e o bicarbonato em meio aquoso. / In this work, methods employing capillary electrophoresis with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection (CE - C4D) are introduced for the determination of several species in biodiesel and ethanol fuel. The concentrations of inorganic species (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, SO4 2-, and PO43-) and glycerol are of interest for the regulatory authorities due to their ability to form undesirable compounds in the engines. The separation of the cations was done in BGE composed of 30 mmol L-1 of 2-N-morpholino-ethanesulfonic acid (MES)/L-histidine, pH 6. The separation of anionic species was carried out in similar BGE including cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (0.2 mmol L-1). For glycerol, a neutral species, its oxidation with periodate was employed. This well-known reaction is specific to polyols and generates iodate. The amount of iodate produced by the reaction was determined by CE. The separation was carried out in ca. 1 min using BGE composed of 30 mmol L-1 of acetic acid, pH 3. This work also presents studies on the formation of low molecular organic acids during the biodiesel autoxidation step. Since the implications of the biodiesel oxidation are the increased viscosity and acidity, causing formation of insoluble gums and sediments that induce the clogging of the fuel filters. The samples were oxidized using equipment for accelerated oxidation test (Rancimat Method) and CE-C4D was used to analyze the ionic products. The main acid species were acetic and formic acids. However, acrylic, glyoxylic, glycolic, lactic, and propionic acids were also observed only after the oxidation step. Thus, these species are candidates for quality markers for biodiesel. In particular, glycolic acid seems to be a good marker, because it is produced only after auto-oxidation started. Moreover, it was found out in biodiesel of different origins (cotton, soy, palm, and animal fat). In addition, alternative methods to determination of Cl-, SO42-, formate, acetate, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde in ethanol fuel are described. The separation was done in BGE composed of 20 mmol L-1 of MES / L-histidine, and 0.1 mmol L-1 cetyltrimethylammonium hydroxide, pH 6. For aldehydes, a neutral species, a derivatization step with bisulfite was employed. The present work also shows an alternative method for analysis of alcohol and water percentage in fuel samples employing CE - C4D in order to achieve the limits established by regulatory authorities. The strategy is based on the formation of monoalkyl carbonates (MAC) produced by the reaction of an alcohol and bicarbonate in aqueous medium.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-21T18:53:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 CarmenVoip.pdf: 1496510 bytes, checksum: 5fdc42288fa4dd847df1aba29e391681 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-09-29 / This work have studied the biofuel sinthesys by acid etanolic transesterification, by using frying oil as raw material. Biofuel quality was monitored by volumetrics and spectroscopic techniques. The results indicated that the best yield, 94,5, was obtained by using the following conditions: 75C, 60 minutes and 2 mL of sulfuric as catalyst. 1H NMR spectra allowed determine the fatty acids biofuel profile at any times of reaction, as well the ethyl esters molecular weight, iodine and saponification value, and reaction yield. The biofuel support thermal stress at 110C/8h. Good correlations were obtained between: 1H NMR iodine values and that determined by the AOCS method; 1H NMR saponification values and that determined by the AOCS method; 1H NMR molecular weight with saponification values as determined by the AOCS method and absorbances at 247nm with peroxid values as determined by AOCS method, whose regression coefficients ranged from 0,961 to 0,976. 13C NMR spectroscopy has discriminated the components presents in rude and distilled biofuel. The biofuel quality can be monitored efficiently by espectroscopics techniques as 1H, 13C NMR and UV-Vis. / Neste trabalho foram estudadas as sínteses de biocombustível por transesterificação etanólica ácida, utilizando óleo de fritura como matéria-prima. A qualidade do produto foi monitorada por técnicas volumétricas e espectroscópicas. Os resultados indicaram que o melhor rendimento, de 94,5, foi obtido utilizando-se temperatura de 75, tempo de 60 minutos e 2 mL do catalisador ácido sulfúrico concentrado. A espectrometria de RMN de 1H permitiu determinar o perfil de ácidos graxos do biocombustível em qualquer tempo de reação, peso molecular médio dos ésteres etílicos, índices de iodo e saponificação, e rendimento da reação. O biocombustível se manteve estável sob estresse térmico (110/8 h). Boas correlações foram obtidas entre: índice de iodo determinado por RMN de 1H e pelo método da AOCS; índice de saponificação determinado por RMN de 1H e pelo método da AOCS; peso molecular médio determinado por RMN de 1H e índice de saponificação pelo método da AOCS; e entre as absorbâncias em 247 nm e índice de peróxido pelo método da AOCS, cujos coeficientes de regressão variaram de 0,961 a 0,976. A espectrometria de RMN de 13C contribuiu para discriminar os componentes presentes no biocombustível bruto e destilado. A qualidade do biocombustível pode ser eficientemente monitorada por técnicas espectroscópicas como RMN de 1H, 13C e UV-Vis.