The subject of my thesis is The regulation on the wild fauna protection. Recently, there is the loss in biodiversity and this may have a negative effect on the entire mankind. The main reason includes the effects of invasive species and habitat loss. I chose this topic because of the combination of my interests in the environmental law and also in zoology. I would like to try to comprehensively describe the rules governing the protection of wildlife. Since it is adapted in a large amount of legislation, it is very difficult to orientate in that. This work should help in the basic understanding of the problems and introducing readers into the aspects of this topic. The thesis is divided into six chapters. The first chapter summarizes the general background and reasons of the biodiversity loss. Also mentioned is the current context. The second chapter describes a historical development of the nature protection with the focus on the reasons why the wildlife was protected. The third chapter summarizes the main international conventions in this area, which are the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and...

O sistema de produção de café orgânico vem surgindo como uma alternativa tecnológica e economicamente rentável, que visa eliminar os impactos ambientais provocados pelo uso irracional dos recursos naturais. Muitas experiências e análises apontam a biodiversidade como precursora da estabilidade biológica encontrada nesses agroecossistemas produtivos diversificados (SAFs). No entanto, são incipientes os estudos científicos sobre o efeito da biodiversidade nos sistemas agrícolas de produção. Assim, o maior desafio da pesquisa foi identificar qual o sistema de manejo propiciava mais sinergismos biológicos, serviços ecológicos-chaves, tais como o controle biológico da principal praga do cafeeiro. E é nesse sentido que a presente pesquisa foi desenvolvida, com o objetivo de avaliar se a biodiversidade presente nos agroecossistemas está relacionada com a estabilidade ecológica, ou seja, com o equilíbrio dinâmico da população de insetos, que em determinados níveis podem causar elevados danos econômicos à cultura do café. A pesquisa foi desenvolvida na região do Pontal do Paranapanema, nos sistemas agroflorestais conduzidos pelos agricultores assentados sob responsabilidade técnica do IPÊ (Instituto de Pesquisas Ecológicas), instituição responsável pela implantação dos SAFs, por meio do projeto intitulado \"Café com Floresta\". Tal estudo possibilitou um melhor entendimento do efeito da biodiversidade sobre agroecossistemas cafeeiros diversificados que não utilizam inputs externos (fertilizantes e agrotóxicos), além de propiciar uma análise e sistematização dos sistemas de manejo agroecológicos existentes nos assentamentos rurais, bem como a caracterização do manejo e das práticas agroflorestais realizadas pelos agricultores familiares, que envolvem aspectos socioeconômicos da produção. Dessa maneira, a pesquisa tem grande relevância científica, visto que, possibilitou averiguar que os arranjos agroflorestais estudados na região possibilitaram uma menor incidência da principal praga do cafeeiro (Coffea arabica), o bicho-mineiro (Leucoptera coffeella), mostrando que os SAFS são uma alternativa ecológica e social apropriada à agricultura familiar, uma vez que confere maior resiliência aos agroecossistemas. / The system of production of organic coffee is emerging as an alternative technology and affordable, which aims to eliminate the environmental impacts caused by irrational use of natural resources. Many experiments and analyzes indicate biodiversity as a precursor of biological stability found in these diverse productive agroecosystems. However, are incipient scientific about the effect of biodiversity on agricultural production systems studies. Thus, the biggest challenge of the research was to identify which system management propitiated more synergisms biological, ecological services - keys, such as biological control of major pest of coffee. And that is what this research was developed with the aim of evaluating whether the present biodiversity in agroecosystems is related to ecological stability ,ie, the dynamic balance of the insect population , which at certain levels can cause major economic damage the coffee culture. The research was conducted in the Pontal region in agroforestry systems driven by farmers settled under the technical responsibility of IPE (Institute for Ecological Research), the institution responsible for the implementation of the SAF, through the project entitled \"Coffee with Forest\". This study allowed a better understanding of the effect of biodiversity on diversified coffee agroecosystems that do not use external (fertilizers and pesticides) inputs, as well as providing an analysis and systematization of existing agroecological management systems in rural settlements, as well as the characterization and handling of agroforestry practices carried out by farmers, involving socioeconomic aspects of production. Thus, the research has scientific importance, since possible to ascertain that the studied agroforestry arrangements in the region allowed a lower incidence of major pest of coffee (Coffea arabica ) , the leaf miner (Leucoptera coffeella) , showing that the diversified coffee agroecosystems (SAF) are an appropriate ecological and social alternative to family farming, since it gives greater resilience to agroecosystems.

No Brasil, o acesso aos recursos genéticos e conhecimentos tradicionais são regulamentados pela Medida Provisória n. 2186-16, de 2001. Essa regulamentação não foi capaz de conter a biopirataria, uma prática que data de tempos antigos, e cuja incidência é maior nos países megadiversos. O cupuaçu, objeto de estudo do presente trabalho, foi o primeiro caso de denúncia da biopirataria envolvendo um exemplar da biodiversidade brasileira, mas além dele, outros exemplares de nossa biodiversidade também tiveram seus nomes populares registrados como marca por empresas estrangeiras, entre os quais: o açaí, a copaíba e o jaborandi. Ante a importância do assunto e da escassez de estudos sobre o tema desenvolveu-se a presente pesquisa com o intuito de levantar, discriminar e analisar um conjunto de fatores responsáveis pela ocorrência de práticas de biopirataria tendo como referência o estudo de caso do cupuaçu. Entre os quais destacamos a inexistência de uma lei que configure a biopirataria como crime; a falta de fiscalização nas regiões com maior diversidade biológica; a burocratização gerada pela supramencionada Medida Provisória às pesquisas científicas brasileiras; as limitações dos órgãos responsáveis pela concessão de patentes; as lacunas geradas pela legislação internacional, representada pelo acordo Trips; o fator econômico, relativo ao rendimento econômico que a prática gera às empresas e instituições que se utilizam de recursos genéticos e conhecimento tradicional associado e o fator políticas públicas, dado à necessidade de políticas que valorizem o conhecimento tradicional das comunidades. Para seu combate, propomos formas de iniciativas sociais e políticas de conservação à biodiversidade e proteção ao conhecimento tradicional, onde destacam-se: o fortalecimento das unidades de conservação, principalmente as de uso sustentável por permitirem a presença humana, constituindo-se num importante mecanismo de proteção da nossa biodiversidade e das comunidades tradicionais; a multiplicação do projeto Aldeias Vigilantes: uma nova abordagem na Proteção dos Conhecimentos Tradicionais e no Combate à Biopirataria na Amazônia que visa levar à comunidade indígena um programa de caráter informativo, educativo e conscientizador sobre fatos envolvendo apropriação desautorizada de conhecimentos tradicionais e recursos biológicos da Amazônia, numa linguagem adequada à diversidade étnica e cultural de cada povo; a reflexão e aplicação da Carta dos Pajés de São Luis do Maranhão; o estímulo aos contratos de bioprospecção no Brasil; o incentivo à cooperação Sul-Sul (entre países do hemisfério sul). Além disso, elencamos os elementos necessários para a construção da legislação nacional de acesso e repartição de benefícios, sugeridos a partir das contribuições positivas identificadas nas legislações estrangeiras de acesso e repartição de benefícios; da aplicação das Diretrizes de Bonn; da construção de um sistema de patentes sui generis; aplicação das propostas da CPI da Biopirataria, além das contribuições obtidas com o processo do caso cupuaçu. / In Brazil, the access to the genetic resources and traditional knowledge are controlled by Medida Provisória n. 2186-16, of 2001. This regulation wasnt able to contain the biopiratary, a practice that dates from old times, and whose incidence is bigger in the megadiversos countries. Cupuaçu, object of study of the present work, was the first case of denunciation of biopirataria involving a sample of Brazilian biodiversity, but beyond it, other samples of our biodiversity had also their popular names registered as brands by foreign companies, among them there are: açaí, copaíba and jaborandi. In front of the importance of the subject and the shortage of studies on the subject was developed the present research with the intention to raise, discriminate and to analyze a set of responsible factors for the occurrence of the practice biopiratary having as reference the study of case of cupuaçu. Among them there are: the lack of a law that configures this biopiratary as crime; the lack of fiscalization in the regions with bigger biological diversity; the bureaucratization generated by the Medida Provisória against the Brazilian scientific research; the limitations of the responsible agencies for the concession of patents; the gaps generated for the international legislation, represented for the Trips agreement; the economic factor, relative factor to the economic income that the first practice generates the companies and institutions which use genetic resources and traditional knowledge and the public politics factor, to necessity of politicians that value the traditional knowledge of the communities. For this combat, we consider forms of social initiatives and politics of conservation to biodiversity and protection to the traditional knowledge, where they are distinguished: the strengthening of the units of conservation, mainly of sustainable use for allowing to the presence human being, consisting in an important mechanism of protection of our biodiversity and the traditional communities; the multiplication of the project \"Vigilant Villages: a new boarding in the Protection of the Traditional Knowledge and in the Combat of the Biopiratary in the Amazon\" that aims at taking the aboriginal community a program with informative character, educative and makes counscious on facts involving anauthorized appropriation of traditional knowledge and biological resources of the Amazon, in a suitable language to the ethnic and cultural diversity of each people; the reflection and application of the Letter of the Pajés of São Luis of the Maranhão; the stimulus to contract of bioprospecção in Brazil; the incentive to the cooperation South-South (between countries of the south hemisphere). Moreover, we identify the necessary elements for the construction of the national legislation of access and distribution of benefits, suggested from the positive contributions identified in the foreign legislations of access and distribution of benefits; of the application of Diretrizes of Bonn; the construction of a patentss system sui generis; application of the proposals of the CPI of the Biopiratary, beyond the contributions gotten with the process of the cupuaçus case.

A biodiversidade constitui o pilar de sustentação da civilização humana. No entanto, sua manutenção é constantemente ameaçada pelo próprio homem, em face do modo de produção no qual as economias mundiais se baseiam. Conseqüentemente, tornou-se necessário transformar a biodiversidade em um bem jurídico, a fim de regulamentar seu uso, o que foi feito por meio da Convenção da Diversidade Biológica (CDB). Esta reconhece a soberania dos países signatários sobre a diversidade biológica e cultural presente em seus territórios e a importância da conservação dos recursos naturais e genéticos, por meio da criação e implementação de um sistema de unidades de conservação, proteção dos conhecimentos e práticas tradicionais das comunidades locais, dentre outras formas. Estabelece as diretrizes para tal, assegurando a repartição justa e equitativa dos benefícios gerados pelo uso destes recursos. Ao apresentar as principais políticas públicas implementadas pelo Brasil referentes à conservação da diversidade biológica e tomando por base, especificamente, a criação e implementação de uma área protegida dentro do Sistema Nacional de Unidades de Conservação, este trabalho discute se a criação de reservas extrativistas representa uma alternativa viável à conservação da diversidade biológica e, conseqüentemente, à conservação do estilo de vida das comunidades tradicionais no Brasil. Partindo-se, então, do texto da CDB, discute também se é uma alternativa viável para que o Brasil cumpra seus compromissos junto à CDB. A análise da criação e implementação da Reserva Extrativista do Baixo Juruá, como estudo de caso, comprova que a criação desta categoria de unidade de conservação apresenta-se como uma alternativa bastante válida para a conservação da diversidade biológica e do modo de vida dos moradores de comunidades tradicionais, principalmente para a região Amazônica, como no caso apresentado. / Biodiversity is the mainstream of human civilization. However, its conservation is constantly threatened by mankind and their world production-based economy. It has therefore become necessary to transform biodiversity into an international law wellbeing to regulate its use. This has been achieved by the Biological Diversity Convention (BDC). The BDC recognizes allied countries\' independent right over their own biological and cultural diversity. It also conceives the importance of natural and genetic resources conservation by means of implementing a system of Conservational Units, as well as by the protection of traditional knowledge and practices of local communities among others. The Convention establishes guidelines to achieve these goals, always assuring a fair and equal share of all the benefits obtained from the use of the resources. This paper presents the main public policies implemented in Brazil for the conservation of biodiversity, more specifically the creation and implementation of a protected area as part of the Brazilian National Conservation Unit System. It looks into the feasibility and efficacy of creating an Extractivist Conservation Unit System regarding biodiversity and traditional communities\' lifestyle protection in Brazil according to the BDC established guidelines and goals. The Baixo Juruá Extractivist Conservation Unit is particularly analyzed, focusing on its creation and implementation. This analysis concludes that such category of Conservational Unit comprises a feasible strategy for biodiversity and traditional communities\' lifestyle protection, especially concerning the Amazon.

<p>Den biologiska mångfalden är viktig inom lantbruket. Jordbrukslandskapets mångfald är vacker för människan att se på och spännande och rogivande att vistas i. Mångfalden innehåller även en genbank som kan bli mycket etydelsefull i framtiden. Dessutom innebär oftast en rik mångfald bland ogräsen även en rik mångfald bland insekter och andra djur, däribland skadeinsekternas predatorer, vilket bidrar till produktiva åkrar. Ogräsens mångfald på åkern beror till stor del på geografiskt läge, klimat och berggrund. Även odlingssättet och tillhörande odlingsåtgärder är avgörande för hur åkerns ogräsflora ser ut. En odlingsåtgärd som har ett stort inflytande över ogräsflorans sammansättning, är användningen, eller uteslutandet, av herbicider. </p><p>Uppsatsens fältstudie består av ogräsinventeringar genomförda på två åkrar – en konventionellt odlad och en ekologiskt odlad. Den konventionella åkern är behandlad med syntetiska herbicider och den ekologiska är det inte. Studien visar att den ekologiska åkern hade fler arter, en rikligare mångfald, och många fler plantor än den konventionella åkern. Artsammansättningen tyder på att den konventionella åkern var något mer näringsrik och hade ett lägre pH.</p> / <p>Biological diversity is important in agricultural systems. The diversity of the agricultural landscape is beautiful to the human eye and it provides an exciting as well as soothing environment. Diversity also denotes genetic resources that can be of great importance in the future. Furthermore, a high biological diversity of weeds most often means a high diversity of insects and other animals, among them the predators of pests, which contributes to high productivity of the arable fields. The diversity of weed in a field depends on its geographical location, the climate and the bedrock. Other factors of great importance to the composition of the weed flora are the farming methods (conventional/ecological) and the specific measures used. One measure that has a high influence on the composition of the weed flora is the use, or exclusion, of herbicides. </p><p>The field study of this paper consists of weed inventories of two arable fields – the first cultivated per traditional methods and the second per ecological methods. Herbicides are used in the conventional field but not in the ecological one. The study shows that the ecological field had more secies, a greater diversity, and far more plants than the conventional field. The composition of the weed species indicates that the conventional field had a slightly higher nutritive value and a lower pH value.</p>

Genetic variation is essential for biological evolution, for maintaining viability of populations, and to ensure ecosystem resilience. Increased human exploitation and environmental change result in rapid loss of biological variation, including genetic diversity. Measures to halt this trend require that biological diversity is assessed and monitored. Assessment of biodiversity includes identifying patterns of distribution of genetic variation within individual species. This thesis focuses on spatial genetic structure and assessment of units for conservation in continuous environments without apparent migration barriers. Empirical data refer to Scandinavia and the model species are northern pike (Esox lucius), brown trout (Salmo trutta), and harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena). Questions regarding monitoring genetic diversity and releases of alien populations are also addressed.  The spatial genetic structure of the northern pike in the Baltic Sea is characterized by isolation by distance and continuous genetic change. Positive genetic correlation was found among pike within geographical distances of less than 150 km. This distance may be used to suggest management units in this area. For the brown trout, genetic monitoring identified two sympatric populations within a small mountain lake system. The situation is characterized by a clear genetic but no apparent phenotypic dichotomy. Scientific support for a genetically distinct Baltic harbour porpoise population is limited, and the spatial genetic structure of the harbour porpoise in Swedish waters needs to be clarified. Data for launching conservation genetic monitoring programs is available for only a few Swedish species. Millions of forest trees, fish, and birds are released annually in Sweden and the documentation on these releases is poor. To meet responsibilities of safeguarding biodiversity and surveying biological effects of releases, there is an urgent need for studies aimed at evaluating genetic diversity. / At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 2: Manuscript.

<p>There is a growing interplay of competing realities facing the international community in the general areas of innovation, technological advancement and overall economic development. The highly industrialised wealthy nations, largely located on the Northern hemisphere are on the one hand undoubtedly at the forefront in global research, technology and infrastructure development. The developing and least developed countries on the other hand are mostly situated on the Southern hemisphere. They are not as wealthy or technologically advanced as their&nbsp / Northern counterparts, but are naturally endowed with unique variations of plant, animal and micro-organism species occurring in natural ecosystems, as well as the traditional knowledge on&nbsp / how to use these unique species. This knowledge has been adjudged to be responsible for the sustainable maintenance of the earth&rsquo / s biodiversity. Increasing exploitation of biodiversity,&nbsp / spurred on by the competing realities identified above, has left the earth in a present state of alarm with respect to the uncontrolled loss of biodiversity. The traditional knowledge of local&nbsp / peoples has significantly offered leads to research institutes from the North in developing major advancements in drugs, cosmetics and agriculture. Little or no compensation has however been seen to go back to the indigenous&nbsp / communities and countries that provide resources, and indicate various possibilities through their traditional knowledge to the use of such resources. Efforts by some biodiversity rich countries to&nbsp / ddress this trend through legislation developed in accordance with the principles of the Convention on Biological Diversity have been frustrated due to the inability to enforce their domestic laws outside their borders. Theft of genetic resources and its associated traditional knowledge&nbsp / from such countries has therefore remained a major challenge. Against this backdrop, and on the&nbsp / insistence of biodiversity-rich developing countries, an international regime on access and benefit sharing was negotiated and its final text adopted in 2010. This international regime is as&nbsp / contained in the Nagoya Protocol. This research sets out to examine whether the Nagoya Protocol offers a final solution to the protection of traditional knowledge associated with biodiversity in&nbsp / biodiverse countries. It further examines the importance of domestic legislation in achieving the objectives of the Protocol. The research has been tailored to African biodiverse countries, and&nbsp / seeks these answers within the context of Africa.<br /> &nbsp / </p>

Den biologiska mångfalden är viktig inom lantbruket. Jordbrukslandskapets mångfald är vacker för människan att se på och spännande och rogivande att vistas i. Mångfalden innehåller även en genbank som kan bli mycket etydelsefull i framtiden. Dessutom innebär oftast en rik mångfald bland ogräsen även en rik mångfald bland insekter och andra djur, däribland skadeinsekternas predatorer, vilket bidrar till produktiva åkrar. Ogräsens mångfald på åkern beror till stor del på geografiskt läge, klimat och berggrund. Även odlingssättet och tillhörande odlingsåtgärder är avgörande för hur åkerns ogräsflora ser ut. En odlingsåtgärd som har ett stort inflytande över ogräsflorans sammansättning, är användningen, eller uteslutandet, av herbicider. Uppsatsens fältstudie består av ogräsinventeringar genomförda på två åkrar – en konventionellt odlad och en ekologiskt odlad. Den konventionella åkern är behandlad med syntetiska herbicider och den ekologiska är det inte. Studien visar att den ekologiska åkern hade fler arter, en rikligare mångfald, och många fler plantor än den konventionella åkern. Artsammansättningen tyder på att den konventionella åkern var något mer näringsrik och hade ett lägre pH. / Biological diversity is important in agricultural systems. The diversity of the agricultural landscape is beautiful to the human eye and it provides an exciting as well as soothing environment. Diversity also denotes genetic resources that can be of great importance in the future. Furthermore, a high biological diversity of weeds most often means a high diversity of insects and other animals, among them the predators of pests, which contributes to high productivity of the arable fields. The diversity of weed in a field depends on its geographical location, the climate and the bedrock. Other factors of great importance to the composition of the weed flora are the farming methods (conventional/ecological) and the specific measures used. One measure that has a high influence on the composition of the weed flora is the use, or exclusion, of herbicides. The field study of this paper consists of weed inventories of two arable fields – the first cultivated per traditional methods and the second per ecological methods. Herbicides are used in the conventional field but not in the ecological one. The study shows that the ecological field had more secies, a greater diversity, and far more plants than the conventional field. The composition of the weed species indicates that the conventional field had a slightly higher nutritive value and a lower pH value.

The study of biological diversity has seen a tremendous growth over the past few decades. Among the commonly used indices capturing both the richness and evenness of a community, the Berger-Parker index, which relates to the maximum proportion of all species, is particularly effective. However, when the number of individuals and species grows without bound this index changes, and it is important to develop statistical tools to measure this change. In this thesis, we introduce two estimators for this maximum: the multinomial maximum and the length of the longest increasing subsequence. In both cases, the limiting distribution of the estimators, as the number of individuals and species simultaneously grows without bound, is obtained. Then, constructing the 95% confidence intervals for the maximum proportion helps improve the comparison of the Berger-Parker index among communities. Finally, we compare the two approaches by examining their associated bias corrected estimators and apply our results to environmental data.

During negotiating process of drawing up global environmental conventions or protocols, negotiating parties to form different negotiation coalitions can be observed. However, few existing academic literature or studies have taken a systematic approach to explore the elements that contribute to the formation of these coalitions and to the changes of coalitions in the middle stage of negotiating process. Through examining the negotiating process of several selected conferences for the establishment of global environmental treaties which are representative in nature and from different international environmental domains, this study is to find the core elements and sub-elements which contribute to the formation of negotiation coalitions. This study shows that the composition of negotiation coalitions is dynamic. The timing of reorganizing the negotiating coalitions falls on the stage in which negotiation proceeds from principle issues to substantive ones. In other words, when the issues under negotiation begin to involve legally binding substantive commitments to State parties, the reorganization of negotiation coalitions emerges. Furthermore, this study also finds that common elements do exist in the formation of negotiation coalitions. The core elements are ¡§the source of threat¡¨ and ¡§enhanceing the influence of a State¡¨; they are not affected by the change of negotiating issues. The other two sub-elements are: ¡§the same experience of participating in the same international organizations¡¨, the factor for forming negotiation coalitions during the stage of negotiation on principle issues, and ¡§domestic economic structure¡¨ during the stage of substantive issues negotiation for the formation of negotiation coalitions.