Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 1972. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: no abstract available

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 1964. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: no abstract available / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: geen opsomming

Thesis (PhD(Agric)--Stellenbosch University, 1935. / No Abstract Available

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Grapes are lost annually due to spoilage by Botrytis cinerea. Botrytis cinerea is currently controlled using fungicides and SO2 fumigation in storage rooms but with limited success. Although these techniques have been used for decades they have been associated with numerous of disadvantages. Fungicides are restricted from being used during storage due to legislation and toxicity of the fungicides present on the surface of the berries. SO2 fumigation does not kill the dormant infections present inside the grape tissue and if the SO2 concentration is too high the berries are damaged. During this study two different polymer nanofibrous platforms was synthesized in an attempt to prevent the rotting effect of B. cinerea. The first polymer was modified to yield a polymer with a positively charged quaternized nitrogen moiety, which was subsequently reacted with sodium metabisulfite through an ion exchange process. The modified polymer was electrospun into nanofibrous mats for the benefit of the nanofibers’ high available surface area. A further functionalization was done to increase the quantity of sodium metabisulfite on the surface of the polymer nanofibers. Sodium metabisulfite salt released SO2 gas upon reaction with water vapour present in the atmosphere which resulted in the inhibition of conidial germination of B. cinerea. The second polymer was synthesized and then electrospun into polymer nanofibrous mats followed by chemical modification of the electrospun polymer nanofibers. This post-electrospun modification resulted in the covalent attachment of a fungicide-derivative to the surface of the polymer nanofibers. The fungicide-derivative showed excellent inhibition of B. cinerea mycelium growth. Anti-fungal studies were conducted using the two modified polymer nanofibrous mats against B. cinerea to evaluate these nanofibrous surfaces as B. cinerea inhibiting membranes. Results indicated that B. cinerea conidial germination and mycelium growth were successfully inhibited. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Druiwe bederf jaarliks weens die verrottende effek van die fungi Botrytis cinerea. Botrytis cinerea word tans beheer deur gebruik te maak van swamdoders en swaweldioksied (SO2) besproeiings in stoorkamers, maar met beperkte sukses. Alhoewel hierdie tegnieke al vir dekades in gebruik is, word dit geassosieer met verskeie probleme. Die gebruik van swamdoders word in stoorkamers verbied, weens die moontlike skadelike inname daarvan deur die mens aangesien die swamdoders op die druiwe se oppervlakte teenwoordig is. SO2-gasbesproeiings maak nie dormante infeksies binne-in die druiwe self dood nie en indien SO2 -konsentrasies te hoog is kan dit die druiwe beskadig. Tydens hierdie studie is twee verskillende polimeer-nanoveselplatforms gesintetiseer met die doel om die verrottende effek van B. cinerea te voorkom. Die eerste polimeer is aangepas met ’n primêre amienverbinding met die doel dat dit deur ‘n opvolgende modifikasiereaksie verander om sodoende ’n polimeer met ‘n kwatenêre ammoniumgroep te verkry. Die doel van die kwatenêre eienskap is dat ioniese uitruiling plaasvind tussen die anioon van die polimeer en die natruimmetabisulfiet-anioon van die sout. Die voorbereide kopolimeer is geëlektrospin in nanoveselmatte deur middel van die enkelnaald-en-enkelbal-elektrospintegniek om SMI-qC12 nanovesels te lewer wat gefunksionaliseer is. Die nanoveselmatte is na die elektrospinproses verder aangepas om die hoeveelheid natruimmetabisulfiet op die oppervlak van die nanovesels te verhoog. Die natruimmetabisulfiet stel SO2-gas vry sodra dit in aanraking kom met waterdamp in die lug wat ’n beperkende effek op spoorontkieming van B. cinerea tot gevolg het. Die tweede polimeer is voor en na die elektrospinproses gefunksionaliseer met gesintetiseerde organiese verbindings (swamdoder). Die aanpassing van die polimeer met die organiese verbindings het plaasgevind op ‘n kovalente wyse om te verhoed dat die organiese verbinding vrygelaat word tydens gebruik. Die organiese verbindings het effektiewe beperking van miselium-groei getoon. Anti-swamstudies is uitgevoer tussen die twee gefunksionaliseerde polimeer platforms en B. cinerea om die oppervlaktes van die gefunksionaliseerde polimeer/nanovesels te evalueer as B. cinerea beperkende platforms. Resultate het aangetoon dat spoorontkieming en miselium groei van B. cinerea suksesvol beperk is.

No description available.

En el cultivo de la vid, se reporta a Botrytis cinerea Pers como el hongo patógeno causante de lesiones cancrosas, necrosamiento de brotes y racimos de flores, y pudrición de frutos y semillas, que ocasionan grandes pérdidas económicas a los agricultores. El control de este patógeno se realiza hasta nuestros días con sustancias de origen químico: plaguicidas; los cuales son aplicados al follaje, a las semillas y al suelo, ocasionando problemas en el ambiente. En el presente trabajo, se colectaron 56 muestras de hojas de vid, infectadas con Botrytis cinerea Pers, en un viñedo del caserío La Huaca, en el distrito de San Benito, provincia de Contumaza, departamento de Cajamarca, durante el verano del 2006; de las cuales se aislaron e identificaron 12 cepas de Trichoderma viride. En la evaluación de la actividad antagonista de las 12 cepas de T. viride sobre B. cinerea mediante el método Precolonizado de Placas a 24° C y 28° C, se seleccionó a las cinco cepas: CH-13, CH-25, CH-30, CH-38 y CH-52 que presentaron los mayores porcentajes de área ocupada sobre el patógeno. Estas cepas presentaron actividad antagonista del tipo micoparasitismo, observándose enrollamiento y penetración de las hifas de las cepas de T. viride sobre las hifas de B. cinerea. De las cinco cepas seleccionadas de T. viride, la cepa CH-30 presentó el mayor porcentaje de área ocupada sobre B. cinerea a 24° C y 28° C con un 54.67% y 98% respectivamente. Por los resultados obtenidos, las cinco cepas nativas de Trichoderma viride pueden ser consideradas como una alternativa ecológica para su evaluación como agentes potenciales de control biológico del patógeno B. cinerea. / --- In the culturing of grapevine, there is reported Botrytis cinerea Pers as the fungus pathogenic causative of canker injuries, necrotizing of outbreaks and clusters of flowers, and rotting of fruits and seeds, which cause big economic losses to the farmers. The control of this pathogenic is realized actually by substances of chemical origin: pesticides; which are applied to the foliage, to the seeds and to the soil, causing environment problems. In this present work, there were collected 56 samples of leaves of grapevine, infected with Botrytis cinerea Pers, in a vineyard of The Huaca hamlet, in San Benito district, Contumaza province, Cajamarca department, during the summer of 2006; from these ones, there were isolated and identified 12 strains of Trichoderma viride. In the evaluation of the antagonist activity of these 12 strains of T. viride on B. cinerea by the method of Plates pre-colonized in 24° C and 28 °C, was selected five strains: CH-13, CH-25, CH-30, CH-38 and CH-52 that presented the major percentages of occupied area over the fungus pathogenic. These strains showed antagonist activity of mycoparasitism kind, being observed rolling and penetration of mycelium of T. viride strains on the mycelium of B. cinerea. From 5 T. viride strains selected, the CH-30 one showed the major percentage of occupied area on B. cinerea in 24° C and 28 °C with 54.67% and 98% respectively. For the results obtained, five native strains of Trichoderma viride can be considered as an ecological alternative for its evaluation as potential agents of biological control of the pathogenic B. cinerea.

La sélection naturelle constitue un processus clé de l’adaptation des populations à leur environnement, favorisant les variants présentant les meilleures valeurs sélectives. Les champignons présentent généralement des traits biologiques (diversité des modes de reproduction, grandes tailles de populations, fortes capacités de dispersion, entre autres) qui favorisent leur adaptation à des environnements variés. La compréhension des mécanismes qui sous-tendent l’évolution de leurs populations sous les contraintes, naturelles et anthropiques, qu’elles subissent constituent donc un enjeu majeur pour la protection des plantes, en particulier dans le contexte actuel de durabilité des méthodes de lutte. Dans cette thèse, nous avons décrit la structure et la diversité des populations Botrytis cinerea à l’aide de marqueurs neutres et sélectionnés et d’un échantillonnage emboîté, et avons proposé des mécanismes pouvant expliquer les résultats observés. Puis nous avons analysé la réponse adaptative des populations de B. cinerea en Champagne, aux applications de fongicides. Premièrement, nous avons montré que la pourriture grise était causée par un complexe de deux espèces cryptiques, vivant en sympatrie sur des hôtes communs. De plus, les populations françaises de B. cinerea sont structurées en cinq dèmes, caractérisés par le système de culture (sélection directionnelle), la plante-hôte (adaptation écologique), et dans une moindre mesure, par la géographie. Sur vigne, nous avons mis en évidence une entité dont l’isolement génétique semble lié à un isolement temporel. Par ailleurs, nous avons montré que l’application de fongicides conduit à la sélection de phénotypes résistants spécifiquement à quasiment tous les modes d’action homologués, selon des proportions variant suivant les vignobles et les usages. Plus particulièrement, la résistance aux fongicides inhibiteurs de la succinate déshydrogénase (SDHI) est causée par au moins sept mutations affectant les gènes encodant la protéine cible de ces fongicides, déterminant ainsi une grande variété de phénotypes. Enfin, nous avons montré que les fongicides ne modifiaient pas la structure neutre des populations mais qu’ils pouvaient conduire à une perte de richesse allélique dans les populations traitées ainsi qu’à un équilibre sélection-migration détectable dans certaines situations sous forme de clines au loci sous pression de sélection contemporaine tels que ceux déterminant la résistance multidrogues. La modélisation de l’évolution des fréquences de résistance hivernale a permis d’estimer le coût de la résistance pour quatre loci déterminant la résistance aux fongicides. Cette thèse a permis d’appréhender le fonctionnement des populations de B. cinerea et de comprendre et quantifier partiellement les mécanismes sélectifs opérant in natura. Ces informations seront utilisées pour raisonner des stratégies anti-résistance adaptées localement et durables. / Natural selection is the most powerful force driving population adaptation to their environment, favoring the variants with the best fitness. Fungi generally exhibit biological traits (diversity of reproduction modes, large population sizes, and intense dispersion) that favor their adaptation to changing environments. Therefore, disentangling the mechanisms that explain their evolution under natural and anthropic constraints constitute a major challenge for plant protection, especially in the actual context of agriculture sustainability. In this thesis, we described Botrytis cinerea population structure and diversity, using neutral and selected markers and a hierarchical sampling, and proposed mechanisms that may explain these observations. We then analyzed the adaptive answer of this species towards fungicide applications. First, we showed that grey mold populations were caused by a complex of two cryptic species, living sympatrically on the same hosts. Second, B. cinerea populations are divided into five demes, according to the cropping system (directional selection), the host-plant (ecological adaptation), and to a lesser extent, by geography. On grapevine, we identified a specific populations exhibiting temporal isolation, as an evidence of extreme exploration of the viticultural conditions. Moreover, fungicide applications select resistance towards all unisite modes of action, with few exceptions, but at varying proportions according to vineyards and fungicide use. More specifically, resistance to succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors (SDHIs) is caused by at least seven mutations altering the target genes of these fungicides, and determines a large variety of phenotypes in the field. At last, we showed that fungicides did not shape population structure but that they could decrease allele richness in treated areas and lead to migration-selection equilibrium, detectable in some situation and for loci under contemporary selective pressures as clines. Modeling the evolution of resistance during winter allowed estimating fitness cost of four loci involved in contemporary fungicide resistance, such as multidrug resistance. As a conclusion, this thesis helped to understand how B. cinerea populations evolve and to detect and quantify selective mechanisms at work in natura. This information will be useful to deign sustainable and locally-adapted anti-resistance strategies.

The objective of this thesis was to investigate BiOWiSHTM-Aqua, a commercial dry solid formulation containing a consortium of bacteria and yeast, as a biopesticide for treatment of Botrytis cinerea, a gray mold that affects strawberries. BiOWiSHTM-Aqua was compared with another commercial product specifically used as a fungicide and bacteriocide, Serenade® Garden Disease Control Spray (concentrated Bacillus subtilis strain QST 713). Both laboratory tests as well as in vivo lab tests were conducted. BiOWiSHTM-Aqua results varied widely from plate to plate, regardless of experimental conditions. In some of these plates, inhibition zones were observed around colonies from BiOWiSHTM-Aqua, indicating efficacy. The organism responsible for the inhibition zones of B. cinerea growth was isolated from BiOWiSHTM-Aqua, and 16s rRNA analysis identified this culture as a strain of B. subtilis. This strain was designated as B. subtilis ssp. KLB. The B. subtilis KLB concentration required to completely inhibit B. cinerea was 9.1x104 CFU/mL when B. subtilis KLB was inoculated 48 hours before B. cinerea, 1.3x105 CFU/mL at 24 hours, and 3.2x106 CFU/mL when both were inoculated at the same time. Various preliminary experiments using B. subtilis KLB were also conducted to investigate its economic feasibility, to characterize the organism, and to test its post-harvest in vivo viability. B. subtilis KLB cell concentration was 1.6x109 CFU/mL in a bioreactor with LB at the end of the log growth phase. B. subtilis KLB achieved cell concentrations as high as 5x109 CFU/mL in shake flasks with food-grade tapioca as a carbon source. Inoculation of B. subtilis KLB on post-harvest strawberries did not have an effect on Botrytis infection rates compared to the negative control. These various experiments were the first step in research to potentially produce B. subtilis KLB on a commercial scale.

La microflore des raisins est importante d’un point de vue technologique car elle conditionne en partie la qualité du vin. Or, la diversité des flores fongiques présentes sur baies de raisin ainsi que leur potentiel de contamination du produit final ne sont pas encore pleinement connus. Dans ce cadre, la caractérisation des flores fongiques cultivables présentes sur baies de raisin a été réalisée par PCR ITS-RFLP. 41 espèces de moisissures différentes sur les 43 étudiées appartenant à 11 genres différents ont été caractérisées de façon fiable. Seules les espèces Penicillium thomii et Penicillium glabrum ont présenté le même profil. Ainsi 96.3% des souches étudiées ont été caractérisées avec au maximum 4 enzymes de restriction et 41.5% des souches ont pu l’être avec seulement 2 enzymes de restriction. Ces résultats ont permis d’enrichir les bases de données, moyennement pourvues en séquences ITS caractéristiques de genres ou d’espèces de moisissures présentes sur baies de raisin. De plus, une étude exhaustive des moisissures présentes sur baies de raisin en Bourgogne a permis, par PCR ITS-RFLP, d’identifier 199 souches au niveau de l’espèce et ce quelque soit le genre. Penicillium spinulosum est l’espèce majoritaire isolée pour le millésime 2008 en Bourgogne. Parallèlement, la quantification de Botrytis cinerea, choisi comme micro-organisme modèle, a été réalisée par qPCR. La technique qPCR décrite dans ce travail présente (i) une bonne sensibilté avec une limite de détection de 6.4 pg d’ADN correspondant à 540 spores, (ii) l’originalité de travailler en échantillons naturellement contaminés et la fiabilité d’utiliser un standard interne. L’évaluation de l’efficacité de différentes stratégies de traitements anti-Botrytis a confirmé l’importance de la prophylaxie (effeuillage) dans la lutte contre Botrytis cinerea. / Microbial population of grapes is important from a technological point of view because it determines the quality of wine. But few studies have focused on fungal populations of grapes. A better knowledge of the fungal diversity on grapes, particularly as concerns species responsible for wine defects, may help efforts to control their development.We report the development of a PCR ITS-RFLP method as a fast and easy technique for identifying species of fungal genera present on grapes. By this methode, 41 different fungal species among 43 studied species belonging to 11 genera were characterized at the species level. Only P. thomii remained indistinguishable from P. glabrum. Using this PCR-ITS-RFLP, 96.3% strains tested could be differentiated to the species level with only four enzymes and 41.5% only with two enzymes. Moreover this work has contributed to the enriching of the database of fungal ITS sequences.Thus 199 isolated strain were on grapes in Burgundy vineyard were chacacterized at species level indepdantly of the genus by this method. P. spinolusum was the most frequently isolated species of Penicillium in Burgundy for 2008 vintage. Paralelly, the quantification of Botrytis cinerea, used as model, was developped by qPCR. The assay contained an internal amplification control to compensate for variations in DNA extraction and the various compounds from grapes, had high efficiency and the limit of detection was estimated to be 6.3 pg DNA (corresponding to 540 spores). This method was applied to assess the effects of various treatment strategies against Botrytis in the vineyard and demonstrates the importance of the prophylactic method.

En el cultivo de la vid, se reporta a Botrytis cinerea Pers como el hongo patógeno causante de lesiones cancrosas, necrosamiento de brotes y racimos de flores, y pudrición de frutos y semillas, que ocasionan grandes pérdidas económicas a los agricultores. El control de este patógeno se realiza hasta nuestros días con sustancias de origen químico: plaguicidas; los cuales son aplicados al follaje, a las semillas y al suelo, ocasionando problemas en el ambiente. En el presente trabajo, se colectaron 56 muestras de hojas de vid, infectadas con Botrytis cinerea Pers, en un viñedo del caserío La Huaca, en el distrito de San Benito, provincia de Contumaza, departamento de Cajamarca, durante el verano del 2006; de las cuales se aislaron e identificaron 12 cepas de Trichoderma viride. En la evaluación de la actividad antagonista de las 12 cepas de T. viride sobre B. cinerea mediante el método Precolonizado de Placas a 24° C y 28° C, se seleccionó a las cinco cepas: CH-13, CH-25, CH-30, CH-38 y CH-52 que presentaron los mayores porcentajes de área ocupada sobre el patógeno. Estas cepas presentaron actividad antagonista del tipo micoparasitismo, observándose enrollamiento y penetración de las hifas de las cepas de T. viride sobre las hifas de B. cinerea. De las cinco cepas seleccionadas de T. viride, la cepa CH-30 presentó el mayor porcentaje de área ocupada sobre B. cinerea a 24° C y 28° C con un 54.67% y 98% respectivamente. Por los resultados obtenidos, las cinco cepas nativas de Trichoderma viride pueden ser consideradas como una alternativa ecológica para su evaluación como agentes potenciales de control biológico del patógeno B. cinerea. / In the culturing of grapevine, there is reported Botrytis cinerea Pers as the fungus pathogenic causative of canker injuries, necrotizing of outbreaks and clusters of flowers, and rotting of fruits and seeds, which cause big economic losses to the farmers. The control of this pathogenic is realized actually by substances of chemical origin: pesticides; which are applied to the foliage, to the seeds and to the soil, causing environment problems. In this present work, there were collected 56 samples of leaves of grapevine, infected with Botrytis cinerea Pers, in a vineyard of The Huaca hamlet, in San Benito district, Contumaza province, Cajamarca department, during the summer of 2006; from these ones, there were isolated and identified 12 strains of Trichoderma viride. In the evaluation of the antagonist activity of these 12 strains of T. viride on B. cinerea by the method of Plates pre-colonized in 24° C and 28 °C, was selected five strains: CH-13, CH-25, CH-30, CH-38 and CH-52 that presented the major percentages of occupied area over the fungus pathogenic. These strains showed antagonist activity of mycoparasitism kind, being observed rolling and penetration of mycelium of T. viride strains on the mycelium of B. cinerea. From 5 T. viride strains selected, the CH-30 one showed the major percentage of occupied area on B. cinerea in 24° C and 28 °C with 54.67% and 98% respectively. For the results obtained, five native strains of Trichoderma viride can be considered as an ecological alternative for its evaluation as potential agents of biological control of the pathogenic B. cinerea.