Particle breakage can be significant in stirred vessels such as crystallizers. During crystallization, particle breakage can occur due to particle contact with other particles, the impeller, the suspension fluid, and/or the vessel. Such breakage produces fines and can cause filter plugging downstream. Although research has been conducted with respect to particle breakage, a comprehensive study is still needed to quantify the breakage occurring in stirred vessels. The overall goal of this research is to model the particle breakage occurring in a stirred vessel by analyzing the particle size and shape distributions that result from breakage. Breakage experiments are based on collision influences that affect the two dominant collisions types, crystal-to-crystal and crystal-to-impeller collisions. Results showed that the quantity of fines produced are affected by the solids concentration or magma density and suspension fluid utilized. Additionally, aqueous saturated solutions produced particle size distributions that differ from those obtained using a nonsolvent. Similar particle size distributions for two different materials (NaCl and KCl) are achieved in the same nonsolvent (acetonitrile) by adjusting the agitation rate using the Zwietering correlation to account for property differences; moreover, the same agitation rate adjustment produced similar distributions for KCl in acetone and acetonitrile which were both nonsolvents. However, modifications to the Zwietering correlation, such as changing the significance of the initial particle size, are proposed before this method of adjustment is deemed accurate. Number-based population modeling of particle breakage is achieved within 1-5% error for NaCl at each agitation rate investigated. Breakage modeling using a discretized population balance equation with Austin's equation for attrition and the power law form of the product function for fragmentation is a viable approach; however, more work is needed to increase the accuracy of this model.

Aitik is a large copper porphyry type deposit located in northern Sweden, currently exploited at an annual rate of approximately 45Mt. The ore's exceptionally low head grade of 0.22 % Cu and varying degrees of hardness across the entire deposit pose challenges to the two fully autogenous grinding lines, each of which comprises a 22.5 MW primary autogenous mill in series with a pebble mill. The variability in ore grindability frequently leads to fluctuations in mill throughput.  Within the framework of a geometallurgical approach, the present study investigated the relationships between ore grindability and modal mineralogy. For this purpose, drill core samples from different lithologies were subjected to Boliden AB's in-house grindability tests. This laboratory-scale autogenous grinding test generates a grindability index Ks mainly related to abrasion breakage, which is a significant breakage mechanism within autogenous mills. The test results suggested divergent degrees of grindability within and across the selected rock types. Furthermore, subsequent sieve analyses identified a relationship between the grindability index, PSD, and the proportions of fines generated by abrasive grinding. A combination of scanning electron microscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, and X-ray fluorescence analyses was performed for the grinding products and bulk mineral samples. The resulting mineralogical and elemental properties were correlated to the parameters from the grindability tests. It was shown that the main mineral phases, such as plagioclase, quartz, and micas, correlate well with the grindability indices. Similar correlations were found regarding the sample's chemical composition, attributable to the main mineral phases. Derived from the previous findings, two exemplary linear empirical models for the calculation of grindability based on either mineral contents or chemical composition were presented. Careful examination of the mineralogical data revealed that the prevalent abrasion breakage mechanism leads to constant and continuous removal of mineral particles from the sample's surface. No indications for a preferential abrasion of any mineral phases were found.  A further inverse correlation between the sample's calculated average weighted Mohs hardness based on modal mineralogy and the grindability index Ks was established. Hence, it was proposed that a higher Mohs hardness results in a finer grinding product, oppositional to the Ks-values. Since Ks can be interpreted as a measure of abrasiveness, it can be stated that abrasiveness decreases with an increasing average sample hardness and vice versa.  Moreover, mineral liberation information provided by scanning electron microscopy was associated with the parameters mentioned earlier. It was determined that different degrees of mineral liberation were reached within specific particle size classes. The identified relationships between grindability, modal mineralogy, and element grades may help Boliden develop a predictive throughput model for Aitik to be integrated into the mine's block model. Based on this information, a strategy for smart blending could be developed, where run of mine material from ore blocks of varying grindabilities could be blended to attain the target plant throughput.

The objectives of this investigation are to develop a precise, non-destructive single crystal stress measurement technique, develop a model to explain the phenomenon known as 3power slump2, and investigate the role of device processing on wafer breakage. All three objectives were successfully met. The single crystal stress technique uses a least squares analysis of X-ray diffraction data to calculate the full stress tensor. In this way, precise non-destructive stress measurements can be made with known error bars. Rocking curve analysis, stress gradient corrections, and a data reliability technique were implemented to ensure that the stress data are correct. A theory was developed to explain 3power slump2, which is a rapid decrease in the amplifying properties of microwave amplifier circuits during operation. The model explains that for the particular geometry and bias configuration of the devices studied in this research, power slump is linearly related to shear stress at values of less than 90 MPa. The microscopic explanation of power slump is that radiation enhanced dislocation glide increases the kink concentration, thereby increasing the generation center concentration in the active region of the device. These generation centers increase the total gate current, leading to a decrease in the amplifying properties of the device. Passivation layer processing has been shown to both reduce the fracture strength and increase the residual stress in GaAs wafers, making them more susceptible to wafer breakage. Bare wafers are found to have higher fracture strength than passivated wafers. Bare wafers are also found to contain less residual stress than SiON passivated wafers, which, in turn, are found to have less stress than SiN passivated wafers. Topographic imaging suggests that SiN passivated wafers have larger flaws than SiON passivated wafers, and that the distribution of flaw size among SiN passivated wafers is wider than the distribution of flaws in SiON passivated wafers. These flaws are believed to lead to breakage of the device during processing, resulting in low fabrication yield. Both the power slump model and the wafer breakage data show that these phenomena are dependent on residual stress developed in the substrate during device fabrication. Reduction of process-induced residual stress should therefore simultaneously decrease wafer breakage rates and reduce power slump during device fabrication and operation. / Ph. D.

In this study, the effect of speed was investigated on the breakage rate of UG2 platinum ore in a batch mill of 5 dm3 and 175 mm internal diameter. One size fraction method was carried out to perform the experiment. Five mono-sized fractions in the range of 1.180 mm to 0.212 mm separated by √2 series interval were prepared. The fractions were milled at different grinding times (0.5, 2, 4, 15 and 30 min) and three fractions of mill critical speed were considered (20%, 30%, and 40%). The target of critical speed below 50% was due to the need of lower energy consumption in milling processes. The selection and breakage function parameters were determined and compared for fractions of critical speed. First the grinding kinetics of the ore was determined and it was found that the material breaks in non-first order manner. Thereafter, effective mean rate of breakage was determined. It was found that the rate of breakage increased with increase of mill speed and optimum speed was not reached in the range of chosen mill speed fractions. Again the rate of breakage was plotted as a function of particle size, the optimum size was 0.8 mm when milling at 30% critical speed. As for 20% and 30% optimum size was not reached. The selection function parameters estimated at 30% critical speed were 𝑎0 = 0.04 min−1 , 𝛼 = 1.36, 𝜇 = 0.9 mm, and Λ = 3. Breakage function parameters were determined and was noticed that the material UG2 platinum ore is non-normalised, i.e. Φ value was changing from 0.25 to 0.90 depending on feed size and mill speed. The parameters 𝛽 and 𝛾 were constant at 7.3 and 1.17 respectively. / College of Science, Engineering and Technology / M. Tech. (Chemical Engineering)

Pour contribuer à la compréhension des processus d'arrachement et de fragmentation de la roche par l'explosif en ciel ouvert, le travail de recherche présenté dans ce mémoire vise à affiner les techniques empiriques de prédiction de fragmentation existantes. Un programme expérimental conséquent réalisé en échelle réelle sur site minier apporte des données ainsi que de nouveaux éléments par rapport à l'existant dans la littérature. En particulier, une comparaison entre résultats de tirs de charge unique et résultats de tirs à plusieurs charges est faite. Dans le contexte roche/explosif du site test, les résultats démontrent que le bénéfice industriel d'une prédiction charge par charge est limité. Une approche numérique a été mise en œuvre en parallèle du travail expérimental ; elle met à contribution un modèle rhéologique d'endommagement développé spécifiquement pour l'étude de laf ragmentation par l'explosif (Rouabhi, 2004). Des calculs 2D avec réduction d'échelle ont été réalisés ; l'utilisation d'un tel modèle d'endommagement s'avère indispensable, et la nécessité de coupler dans le futur les effets des ondes de choc et des gaz d'explosion dans la modélisation est soulignée. On explique par ailleurs de manière originale les résultats d'une étude expérimentale en laboratoire (Miklautsch et al., 2002). En fin de mémoire, plusieurs méthodologies de prédiction charge par charge aisément reproductibles sont testées et ajustées aux résultats du programme expérimental. On finit par montrer que la meilleure méthode offre même davantage de précision lorsqu'elle est appliquée avec les paramètres moyens des tirs et non charge par charge. / To contribute in the understanding of rock breakage and fragmentation processes in open pit blasting, the herein presented research aims at refining existing empirical fragmentation prediction techniques. A comprehensive full-scale experimental program has been conducted in an open pit mine and analyzed. The experiments yield data as well as enlightenments with respect to existing literature on blasting experiments. In particular, single-hole and multiple-hole blasting results are compared. In the test site's rock/explosives context, results demonstrate that industrial benefits from a hole-by-hole prediction are limited. A numerical approach has been developed in parallel to experimental work; it takes advantage of adamage behaviour law specifically designed for fragmentation by explosives (Rouabhi, 2004). 2D calculations with scale reduction are made; the use of such a behaviour law is shown to be essential, and it is outlined that coupling shock wave & explosive gases effects should be sought in future modelling work. Moreover, results observed in a laboratory scale experimental study (Miklautsch, 2002) are explained in an original way. At the end of the thesis, several hole-by-hole prediction methods – which can easily be reproduced –are tested and fitted with results from the full-scale blasting experiments. In the end, it is shown that the most accurate method obtained, when used with mean blast pattern parameters instead of hole-by-hole information, actually provides an even more accurate prediction.

L’impact environnemental est un paramètre prépondérant dans l’élaboration de nouveaux matériaux. Dans le secteur du transport, l’introduction de silice précipitée comme charge renforçante en remplacement d’une partie du noir de carbone a permis de mettre au point des pneus plus respectueux de l’environnement.L’objectif de notre projet consiste à déterminer l’effet des conditions d’élaboration et de traitement de la silice sur l’aptitude des granules de silice à se disperser dans l’élastomère, sans compromettre leur résistance à la fragmentation en milieu sec lors des opérations du procédé. Pour ce faire, différentes caractérisations ont été effectuées. Tout d’abord, une analyse de la texture des agglomérats de silice est réalisée dans le but d’obtenir une description morphologique de ces granules (surface spécifique, granulométrie, structure 3D). Une étude du comportement des granules sous contraintes mécaniques (ultra-sons, transport pneumatique) a permis de quantifier la cinétique de désagglomération des micro-granules de silice. Ces différentes mesures expérimentales nous permettent de mettre en évidence l’impact des étapes du procédé sur les propriétés des granules de silice. Ceci nous a permis de mettre en avant différents mécanismes de fragmentation des granules. Enfin, nous proposons une modélisation de la fragmentation au moyen d’un modèle matriciel. Ce modèle a permis, à partir de données expérimentales, de remonter aux mécanismes de fragmentation. / Silica is constantly gaining importance as a reinforcing filler for rubber compounds. It offers several advantages compared to carbon black. In tyres treads, silica can yield a lower rolling resistance at equal wear resistance and wet grip than carbon black. This work consists in the determination of the effects of processes and treatments of precipitated silica granules on their capacity to nicely disperse the silica in the elastomer, without impairing their breakage resistance during dry steps of the process.In this work, physico-chemical characterizations like laser granulometry, specific surface area, SEM, X-ray tomography have been given morphological and structural information on the granule properties. In a second step, the behaviour of silica granules under mechanical stress in various media (air, liquid) by ultrasound solicitation, fluidized bed, impact breakage, is investigated. Mechanisms are observed for the fragmentation of the granules (erosion, attrition, breakage, splitting) and a quantification of the breakage kinetics of granule is proposed. In the last step, a model of the fragmentation process in water is presented. All these experiments give us information about the impact of the process on the granule structures and mechanicals properties.

The integrity of the genome relies on the maintenance of chromosomes, the structural embodiment of the genetic material. Disruption of chromosome replication can lead to extensive genomic rearrangements, spanning kilobase (Kb) to megabase (Mb) regions. Some chromosome rearrangements are inherently dynamic, beginning as a single unstable rearrangement from which multiple rearrangements emerge. The rare formation and transient behavior of unstable chromosomes renders their study challenging. Here I characterize the genetic ontogeny of unstable chromosomes in a budding yeast model, from initial replication error to unstable chromosome formation to their resolution. I find that the initial error often arises in or near the telomere and frequently forms unstable chromosomes that later resolve to an internal "collection site" in the middle of the chromosome. The initial telomere-proximal unstable chromosome is increased in cells mutant for telomerase, the Tel1 checkpoint kinase and even the Rad9 checkpoint protein, with no known telomere-specific function. Defects in Tel1 and the Rrm3 DNA helicase, or the Tel1-MRX complex and 9-1-1 checkpoint clamp, synergize dramatically to generate unstable chromosomes, further illustrating the consequence of replication error in the telomere. I performed a candidate genetic screen of instability in telomere maintenance and DNA damage response (DDR) proteins to characterize the interplay of pathways regulating senescence and genomic instability. Collectively, my results suggest that unstable chromosomes form in or near damaged telomeres, independently of end degradation (Exo1-independent), by either nonhomologous end joining (partially Lig4-dependent) or by faulty template switch during replication (Lig4- and Rad52-independent). The telomere-proximal unstable chromosomes then rearrange further to the middle of the chromosome. These results implicate telomere replication errors as a common source of widespread genomic changes and make substantial progress to our understanding of the initiation and fate of unstable chromosomes in the eukaryotic genome.

O estudo da interação da radiação com moléculas de DNA tem se intensificado nos últimos anos, determinando avanços nas técnicas experimentais e na compreensão teórica desse fenômeno. No entanto, falta ainda um estudo sistemático e com boa precisão da interação de diferentes radiações com o DNA em condições controladas. Neste trabalho desenvolveu-se uma técnica experimental que permite o estudo daquela interação com diferentes radiações, permitindo uma análise quantitativa dos efeitos da radiação sobre o DNA, mais especificamente, da produção de single- e double strand breaks em moléculas de DNA plasmidial irradiados em solução aquosa com diferentes concentrações de scavengers. Para o desenvolvimento desse trabalho, foram realizados diversos testes para encontrar as condições ideais para se reduzir as incertezas na quantificação das diferentes quebras no DNA. Desenvolveu-se também um programa computacional que permite uma análise precisa da imagem da eletroforese, que oferece ferramentas úteis para a análise quantitativa. Com isso, reduziram-se as incertezas e flutuações experimentais, o que permitiu o estudo da interação radiação-DNA em condições de concentrações de scavengers muito baixas. Os resultados são compatíveis com os dados experimentais, nas condições onde estes já existiam, e compatíveis com o esperado teoricamente nas condições onde não existem dados experimentais para a comparação / The interaction of radiation with DNA molecules has been intensively studied in the last years, allowing improvements on the experimental techniques and on the theoretical comprehension of the phenomena involved in that interaction under controlled conditions. In this work, a new experimental technique has been developed which enables one to study the radiation-DNA interaction for different radiations and with reduced uncertainties, allowing a quantitative analysis of single- and double-strand breaks on DNA in aqueous solutions with different scavenger concentrations. To this end, many experimental tests were performed in order to find the best experimental condition for reducing the uncertainties. A software was developed for quantitative analysis of the electrophorese image, offering the most important tools for accurate quantification of the DNA products. An important reduction on uncertainties was achieved, allowing the extension of experimental studies to the low scavenger concentration region. The results are in good agreement with experimental data at those conditions where these experiments were already performed, and in agreement with the theoretical model where there are no experimental results to compare with.

O estudo da interação da radiação com moléculas de DNA tem se intensificado nos últimos anos, determinando avanços nas técnicas experimentais e na compreensão teórica desse fenômeno. No entanto, falta ainda um estudo sistemático e com boa precisão da interação de diferentes radiações com o DNA em condições controladas. Neste trabalho desenvolveu-se uma técnica experimental que permite o estudo daquela interação com diferentes radiações, permitindo uma análise quantitativa dos efeitos da radiação sobre o DNA, mais especificamente, da produção de single- e double strand breaks em moléculas de DNA plasmidial irradiados em solução aquosa com diferentes concentrações de scavengers. Para o desenvolvimento desse trabalho, foram realizados diversos testes para encontrar as condições ideais para se reduzir as incertezas na quantificação das diferentes quebras no DNA. Desenvolveu-se também um programa computacional que permite uma análise precisa da imagem da eletroforese, que oferece ferramentas úteis para a análise quantitativa. Com isso, reduziram-se as incertezas e flutuações experimentais, o que permitiu o estudo da interação radiação-DNA em condições de concentrações de scavengers muito baixas. Os resultados são compatíveis com os dados experimentais, nas condições onde estes já existiam, e compatíveis com o esperado teoricamente nas condições onde não existem dados experimentais para a comparação / The interaction of radiation with DNA molecules has been intensively studied in the last years, allowing improvements on the experimental techniques and on the theoretical comprehension of the phenomena involved in that interaction under controlled conditions. In this work, a new experimental technique has been developed which enables one to study the radiation-DNA interaction for different radiations and with reduced uncertainties, allowing a quantitative analysis of single- and double-strand breaks on DNA in aqueous solutions with different scavenger concentrations. To this end, many experimental tests were performed in order to find the best experimental condition for reducing the uncertainties. A software was developed for quantitative analysis of the electrophorese image, offering the most important tools for accurate quantification of the DNA products. An important reduction on uncertainties was achieved, allowing the extension of experimental studies to the low scavenger concentration region. The results are in good agreement with experimental data at those conditions where these experiments were already performed, and in agreement with the theoretical model where there are no experimental results to compare with.

Efficient measurement methods for comminution properties are an important prerequisite for testing the variability of an ore deposit within the geometallurgical context. This involves the investigation of effects of mineralogy and mineral texture on the breakage of mineral particles. Breakage properties of mineral particles are crucial for the liberations of minerals and the energy required for that. For process optimization and control purposes, comminution indices are often used to map the variation of processing properties of an entire ore body (e.g. Bond work index). Within the geometallurgical approach this information is then taken up when modelling the process with varying feed properties. The main focus of this thesis work has been to develop a comprehensive geometallurgical testing framework, the Geometallurgical Comminution Test (GCT), which allows the time and cost efficient measurement of grinding indices and their linkage to mineralogical parameters (e.g. modal mineralogy or mineral texture, mineral liberation). In this context a small-scale grindability test has been developed that allows estimating the Bond work index from single pass grinding tests using small amounts of sample material. Verification of the evaluation method and validation was done with different mineral systems. For selected samples the mineral liberation distribution was investigated using automated mineralogy. By transferring the energy-size reduction relation to energy – liberation relation new term liberability has been established. As part of the experimental investigations, mineralogical parameters and mineral texture information were used for predicting breakage and liberation properties. Patterns for describing the breakage phenomena were established for a set of iron oxide ore samples. The determined breakage patterns indicated that the specific rate of mineral breakage slows down when reaching the grain size of mineral particles, thus allowing maximizing mineral liberation significantly without wasting mechanical energy. / CAMM