O cancro cítrico, considerado uma das mais importantes doenças da cultura dos citros, apresentou um drástico aumento de 607% no índice de talhões contaminados no Estado de São Paulo entre 2009 e 2011, mesmo diante da obrigatoriedade legal da erradicação das plantas sintomáticas. O aumento ocorre logo após mudança na legislação de controle e erradicação da doença, justificando a importância de se avaliar as vantagens econômicas de manter o cancro sob controle no Estado e os impactos potenciais de sua disseminação. O objetivo deste estudo é analisar os benefícios econômicos de manter o cancro cítrico sob controle em São Paulo, e comparar as possíveis alternativas para sua prevenção e controle do ponto de vista da sustentabilidade econômica da produção. A abordagem analítica compreende avaliar os fluxos de custos e de receitas do setor diante de diferentes cenários de prevenção e controle do cancro. Com base em valores presentes líquidos desses fluxos, estimar a relação benefício-custo de prevenir, controlar ou manejar a doença no Estado de São Paulo, em um horizonte de tempo de 20 anos. Foram identificados os custos e benefícios mais expressivos ao produtor rural nos diferentes cenários, comparando-se as diferenças em produção de laranjas e custos de produção em situações de prevenção, controle e expansão da doença. Foram analisados os impactos de redução da produtividade e as variações nos custos de produção em cinco cenários, subdivididos em 12 sub cenários. Consideradas as pressuposições adotadas, os resultados apontam vantagens econômicas em manter o cancro cítrico sob controle em São Paulo, com relações benefício-custo significativamente superiores para cenários de prevenção e de controle comparados aos de expansão da doença. No acumulado de 20 anos, a prevenção ao cancro cítrico evita perdas no valor de R$ 12,82 para cada Real investido. Já no cenário em que 90% dos talhões contaminados não são erradicados, a relação é de apenas R$ 0,35 em perdas evitadas para cada Real investido no manejo, supondo que o preço real da laranja permaneça constante em R$11,00/caixa. Contudo, os resultados demonstram que a prevenção e controle da doença apresentam relação benefíciocusto superior ao manejo da doença no médio e longo prazos. Este resultado é relevante considerando que, atualmente, cerca de 99% dos talhões paulistas estão indenes a doença, embora seriamente ameaçados por crescente taxa de disseminação do cancro. / The citrus canker, one of the most important diseases of citrus, showed a drastic increase of 607% in the index of contaminated plots in São Paulo state, between 2009 and 2011, despite the legal requirement of eradication of symptomatic plants, causing a huge impact for farmers. The boost has occurred just after a change in the regulation on the control and eradication of this disease, which justifies the relevance of assessing the economic advantages of keeping canker under control in the state as well as the potential impacts of its dissemination. The objective of this study is to analyze the economic benefits of keeping the citrus canker under control in São Paulo, and to compare the possible alternatives for its prevention and control in terms of the economic sustainability of citrus production. The analytical approach consists on evaluating the cost and revenue flows of this sector for each different scenario of citrus canker prevention, control or fast dissemination. Based upon the net present values of these flows, the benefit-cost ratios are estimated for scenarios of preventing, controlling or managing the disease in the State of São Paulo, for a 20 years projection. For each scenario, the most important costs and benefits for citrus farmers have been identified and then differences of revenues from orange production and their costs compared for those scenarios. The major impacts analyzed are yield reductions and changes in cost production for five scenarios, divided into 12 sub scenarios. Considering assumptions of this work, results point economic advantages in keeping the citrus canker under control in São Paulo, and benefit-cost ratios significantly higher for scenarios of prevention and control of disease compared to scenarios of disease´s expansion. Considering a 20 years period, the scenario of canker prevention avoids losses amounting to R$ 12.82 for each Real invested. On the other hand, for the scenario where 90% of the contaminated plots are not eradicated, the ratio is only $ 0.35 in avoided losses for each Real invested in management, assuming that real price for orange remains constant at R$ 11.00/box along the whole period. However, results demonstrate that preventing and controlling this disease provide benefit-cost ratios greater than managing it in the medium and long term. This is a very relevant finding considering that about 99% of citrus slots in São Paulo are currently not contaminated yet, although they are seriously threatened by a growing rate of canker dissemination.

O cancro cítrico, causado pela bactéria Gram negativa Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri (Xac) é considerado uma das principais doenças da citricultura nacional e mundial, devido à susceptibilidade do hospedeiro e por não existirem métodos de controle eficientes. Dados da literatura relatam que alguns genes de bactérias fitopatogênicas possuem uma seqüência consenso de nucleotídeos (TTCGC...N15...TTCGC) denominada “PIP box” ou “plant-inducible-promoter box”, localizada na região promotora e responsável pela ativação da expressão de fatores de patogenicidade e virulência quando o patógeno entra em contato com a planta hospedeira. O objetivo deste trabalho foi mapear e investigar no genoma da Xac a expressão de genes contendo seqüências do tipo “PIP box”, a 5’ da ORF ou internamente na região codificadora, através da técnica de macroarranjo. Com auxílio de uma ferramenta de bioinformática (script PERL), 208 seqüências consenso para o elemento cis-regulatório “PIP box” foram mapeados no genoma da Xac, e clones contendo seqüências codificadoras associadas aos promotores do tipo “PIP box” foram recuperados do banco de clones gerado pelo projeto de seqüenciamento da bactéria e validados por seqüenciamento. Os DNAs plasmidiais representando cada clone foram preparados e imobilizados em membranas de náilon (macroarranjo), as quais foram hibridadas com sondas de cDNAs marcadas com [a33P] dCTP e obtidas a partir de RNA total extraído da bactéria em estádio não infectante (cultivada em meio de cultura Caldo Nutriente – meio CN) e da bactéria infectante (cultivada por 12 horas ou 20 horas em meio XAM1 indutor de patogenicidade e virulência, ou coletada por exsudação 3 dias ou 5dias após inoculação em folhas de laranjeira). A análise da expressão dos genes contendo promotores “PIP box” putativos revelou 67 genes diferencialmente expressos quando a bactéria teve o seu programa de infecção disparado (indução “in vitro” ou “in vivo”). A validação dos resultados de macroarranjo foi realizada para alguns dos genes por meio de RT-PCR semi-quantitativo e a funcionalidade da seqüência “PIP box” para alguns promotores foi demonstrada através do gene repórter GUS. Os genes com expressão diferencial foram classificados segundo a função biológica das respectivas proteínas codificadas e estão envolvidos em processos tão distintos quanto sistema de secreção tipo III, metabolismo de membrana e parede celular, sistema de captação de ferro, metabolismo de açúcares e degradação da parede vegetal, transdução de sinais, metabolismo de flagelo, formação de biofilme e adesividade, metabolismo de ácidos nucléicos, transportadores de membrana, metabolismo energético e resposta a estresse ambiental. O possível papel destas modificações para a interação planta-patógeno e a instalação do cancro cítrico é discutida. / The citrus canker, caused by the bacterial pathogen Xanthomonas axonopodis pv citri (Xac), is considered worldwide as one of the most important disease of citrus crop due to the lack of resistance in citrus plants and to the absence of efficient methods to control the disease. It was already shown that several genes involved in virulence and pathogenicity in plant pathogenic bacteria have a consensus nucleotide sequence (TTCGC…N15…TTCGC) named plant-inducible-promoter box or PIP box, located in the promoter region of the genes, which are responsible to activate the expression of genes during the host-bacteria interaction. The aim of this work was to map in Xac genome the genes containing the PIP box sequence in the promoter region, or internal to the ORF sequence, and analyze their expression during plant infection using the macroarray technique. Using a PERL script, 208 PIP box consensus sequence associated to genes were found in the Xac genome and clones containing all these genes and their PIP box sequences were recovered from a Xac genome clone bank and reconfirmed by sequencing. The plasmidial DNA containing the gene and the PIP box from each clone were purified, immobilized onto a nylon membrane (macroarray) and hybridized with [a33P] dCTP-labeled cDNAs synthesized from Xac total RNA isolated from bacteria in non-infecting (grown in NB nutrient medium) and infecting (grown for 12 or 20 hours in XAM1 medium that mimics the environment of the plant intercellular space (“in vitro”) or for 3 or 5 days in orange plant leaves (“in vivo”) conditions. The gene expression profile resulting from the array analysis revealed that 67 genes were differentially expressed during the temporal course of the infection. The results were validated through the analysis of expression profile for some genes using semi-quantitative RT-PCR and the PIP box functionality for some promoters was demonstrated using GUS as reporter gene. The differentially expressed genes were classified regarding the biological function of the encoded protein and related to several relevant processes as type III secretion system, membrane and cellular wall metabolism, iron uptake, sugar metabolism and host cell wall degradation, signal transduction, flagellum metabolism, biofilm formation and adhesiveness, nucleic acid metabolism, membrane transporters, energetic metabolism and stress response. The possible roles of these modifications for the bacteria-plant interaction and disease installation are discussed.

O cancro cítrico é uma doença que afeta diversas espécies de Citrus, cujo agente causal é Xanthomonas axonopodis pv citri (XAC). O genoma desta fitobactéria consiste de um cromossomo de ~5 Mpb e dois plasmídeos, que juntos codificam 4313 CDS (seqüências codificadoras), das quais 2710 apresentam similaridade com proteínas conhecidas. Neste trabalho realizamos uma análise comparativa detalhada do genoma de XAC com genomas de três fitopatógenos, Xanthomonas campestris campestris, Xylella fastidiosa 9a5c e Xylella fastidiosa temecula. Com esta análise identificamos genes espécie e gênero-específicos, potencialmente relevantes para adaptação aos seus respectivos nichos ou hospedeiros, além de ilhas de inserção e deleção genômica putativas. Também identificamos vias metabólicas relacionadas com osmoproteção/osmorregulação e com degradação de compostos aromáticos em XAC, que possivelmente são determinantes na eficácia de sua interação com o hospedeiro. Analisamos o nível de expressão de 9 CDS após crescimento de XAC em diferentes concentrações de glicose e verificamos que este açúcar modula positivamente a expressão de CDS relacionadas à síntese de goma e ao sistema de osmoproteção. Além disso, descrevemos a construção de microarranjos de DNA representando 2760 CDS de XAC, constituindo-se uma nova ferramenta para estudos de genômica comparativa e expressão gênica deste fitopatógeno. / Xanthomonas axonopodis pv citri (XAC) is the bacterial pathogen that causes citrus canker disease in several species of Citrus plants. XAC genome consists of a main cromosome of ~5 Mpb and two plasmids that together encode 4313 CDS (coding sequences). Approximately 63% of the CDS have assigned biological functions. In this work, we present a detailed genomic comparison between the genomes of XAC and of three other phytopathogens, X. campestris campestris, Xylella fastidiosa 9a5c and X. fastidiosa Temecula. Based on this analysis, we identified species and genus-specific genes that might be relevant for adaptation to their niches and hosts. We mapped putative insertion/deletion regions in the XAC genome possibly related to gene gains and losses during the divergence of the four bacterial lineages. We have identified the metabolic pathways related to osmoprotection/osmoregulation and aromatic compound degradation important for XAC efficient host colonization and interaction. Expression levels of 9 CDS were analyzed after XAC growth under different glucose concentrations revealing that this sugar upregulates the expression of CDS related to gum synthesis and to osmoregulation. In addition, we describe here the construction of a DNA microarray representing 2760 CDS of XAC as a new tool for comparative genomic and gene expression studies in this phytopathogen.

Orientador: Alessandra Alves de Souza / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-25T17:43:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Caserta_Raquel_D.pdf: 28122729 bytes, checksum: f611b63be786134a0c9fbad9785006b0 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Resumo: A produção do suco de laranja concentrado é uma das commodities mais importantes para o agronegócio brasileiro, entretanto, os constantes problemas fitossanitários que afetam a citricultura vem aumentando os custos de produção e consequentemente a rentabilidade econômica deste setor. É urgente a busca por alternativas para solucionar os problemas fitossanitários da citricultura, nesse sentido, a utilização de transgenia mostra-se uma ferramenta promissora, pois possibilita a obtenção de plantas com genes exógenos que conferem resistência a doenças. Uma das doenças que afetam a citricultura brasileira é a clorose variegada dos citros (CVC), causada pela bactéria Xylella fastidiosa, onde todas as variedades de Citrus sinensis mostram-se suscetíveis a doença. Uma estratégia que vem sendo utilizada para resistência a X. fastidiosa que afeta a cultura de uva na Califórnia-EUA envolve a chamada "confusão do patógeno" onde utiliza-se genes do próprio patógeno visando a alteração da sinalização molecular entre as células bacterianas, interferindo em sua patogenicidade. Neste trabalho foram abordadas as transformações de Nicotiana tabacum e Citrus sinensis com o gene rpfF de X. fastidiosa causadora da CVC, envolvido na síntese de uma molécula sinalizadora que regula a expressão de genes associados a patogenicidade dessa bactéria. Eventos dos cultivares de laranja doce Hamlin e Pineapple transformados com rpfF foram desafiados com X. fastidiosa e, após avaliações nas fases inicial e avançada de sintomas, foi observada uma redução na incidência e na severidade de sintomas de CVC. A movimentação bacteriana ao longo de tais plantas também foi comprometida, sendo que a população bacteriana em pontos distantes do ponto de inoculação foi maior em plantas do tipo selvagem quando comparadas as transgênicas. Esses resultados sugerem que as moléculas produzidas pelas plantas transgênicas foram capazes de alterar o comportamento da bactéria, reduzindo sua patogenicidade. Outro fitopatógeno que ataca pomares brasileiros é Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri, que também apresenta o gene rpfF, e assim como em X. fastidiosa, é responsável pela sinalização molecular. Eventos transgênicos de Carrizo e Pineapple também foram desafiados com X. citri. Nesse patógeno, a interrupção da sinalização mediada por DSF, Diffusible Signal Factor - uma molécula de ácido graxo, reduz sua virulência, e interessantemente, sintomas de cancro cítrico foram reduzidos nas plantas transgênicas. Em folhas transgênicas não foi observado o aparecimento de pústulas, e biofilmes formados na área da inoculação foram alterados. Genes modulados por DSF em bactérias isoladas de plantas transgênicas foram reprimidos, sugerindo que a sinalização foi comprometida. Por fim, seiva das plantas transgênicas não ativou a expressão do promotor engA::GFP em Xanthomonas campestris biosensoras, indicando que a molécula produzida por essas plantas foi capaz de alterar a sinalização. Por outro lado, a seiva das plantas transgênicas ativou a expressão do hxfA::PhoA em X. fastidiosa biosensoras, indicando a funcionalidade dessa molécula para esse fitopatógeno. Portanto, em ensaios com X. citri, o DSF das plantas transgênicas atuou como antagonista, diminuindo a virulência da bactéria através da alteração da sinalização molecular. Esses resultados mostram que as moléculas sinalizadoras produzidas por plantas transformadas com rpfF de X. fastidiosa são promissoras na tentativa de controle de CVC e cancro cítrico / Abstract: The production of concentrate orange juice is one of the most important commodities for Brazilian agribusiness, however, the constant phytosanitary problems affecting the citrus industry is increasing production costs and consequently the economic profitability of this sector. It is urgent to search for alternatives to solve citrus phytosanitary problems, in this sense, the use of transgenesis shows a promising tool because it enables the production of plants with exogenous genes that confer resistance to diseases. One of the diseases that affect Brazilian citrus industry is the citrus variegated chlorosis (CVC), caused by the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa, where all varieties of Citrus sinensis are susceptible to this disease. One strategy that has been used for X. fastidiosa resistance that affects grape cultures in California-USA involves the so-called "pathogen confusion" that is related to the usage of genes of the pathogen itself aiming to change the molecular signaling between bacterial cells by interfering in its pathogenicity. In this work we will discuss the transformation of Nicotiana tabacum and Citrus sinensis with the rpfF gene isolated from X. fastidiosa causing the CVC, involved in the synthesis of a signaling molecule that regulates the expression of genes associated with pathogenicity of these bacteria. Transgenic events of Hamlin and Pineapple transformed with rpfF were inoculated with X. fastidiosa and after evaluations in early and advanced stages of symptoms, a reduction was observed in the incidence and severity of symptoms of CVC. Bacterial movement along these plants was also impaired, and the bacterial population analyzed far from the point of inoculation was higher in wild type plants compared to transgenic ones. These results suggest that the molecules produced by the transgenic plants were able to change the behavior of the bacteria, reducing its pathogenicity. Another pathogen that attacks Brazilian orchards is Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri, which also features rpfF gene, and as in X. fastidiosa is responsible for molecular signaling. Transformed plants of Carrizo and Pineapple were also challenged with X. citri. In this pathogen, the interruption of DSF-mediated signaling reduces its virulence, and interestingly, citrus canker symptoms were reduced in transgenic plants. In transgenic leaves there was no pustules development and alterations in biofilms formed in the area of inoculation were observed. Genes modulated by DSF in bacteria isolated from transgenic plants were repressed, suggesting that signaling was compromised. Finally, sap of transgenic plants did not activate the expression of the promoter engA::GFP in Xanthomonas campestris biosensors, indicating that the molecule produced by these plants was able to change the signaling. On the other hand, the sap of transgenic plants activated the expression of hxfA::PhoA in X. fastidiosa biosensors, indicating the functionality of this molecule for this pathogen. Therefore, in assays with X. citri, the DSF of transgenic plants acted as antagonist, decreasing the virulence of the bacteria by changing the molecular signaling. These results show that the signaling molecules produced by plants transformed with rpfF of X. fastidiosa are promising in the attempt to control CVC and citrus canker / Doutorado / Genetica Vegetal e Melhoramento / Doutora em Genética e Biologia Molecular

Orientador: José Camillo Novello / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-22T19:34:56Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Gomes_FabianaHelenaForte_M.pdf: 6688953 bytes, checksum: ffe979c84bdddab601e6a550b2872ebb (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Resumo: O Brasil é o maior produtor de citros no mundo, entretanto, várias doenças ameaçam a citricultura brasileira, dentre elas o cancro cítrico, causado pela bactéria Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xcc). A doença é caracterizada por necrose e lesões eruptivas. Sabe-se que a bactéria transloca proteínas efetoras para o interior da célula hospedeira e modula a transcrição na planta. Dentre as proteínas translocadas está à proteína PthA que por si só é capaz de induzir hiperplasia e hipertrofia tecidual. Em relação aos genes cuja expressão foi induzida pela infecção por X. citri estão àqueles envolvidos na remodelação da parede celular, síntese, mobilização e sinalização de auxina e giberelina, os quais são os principais hormônios vegetais controladores de crescimento celular. Corroborando com isso, tanto auxina como giberelina ativam a expressão de celulases e expansinas e são necessárias para o desenvolvimento do cancro cítrico. Em 2010 demonstrou-se a interação entre PthAs e a proteína ARF ("auxin response fator") de Citrus sinensis (CsARF), um possível repressor da via de auxina. O promotor do gene da expansina de citros (CsEXP), cujo gene foi induzido por X. citri e auxina contêm uma sequência similar aos chamados AuxRe, elementos cis-regulatórios de resposta à auxina, localizado adjacentemente ao provável TATA-"box". Sendo assim, analisou-se a região 5' a montante do gene CsEXP de C. sinensis a fim de saber se este representa de fato o promotor mínimo do gene e se o "box AuxRE-like" funciona como elemento regulatório de resposta à auxina. No ensaio de transformação de CsEXP para ativação do gene repórter GUS, a região promotora foi responsiva à auxina, havendo, portanto uma regulação positiva do gene pelo hormônio. Há uma interação (sinergismo) entre a proteína PthA2 e/ou PthA4 com auxina na regulação da transcrição. Esta região que contém o "box AuxRE-like" possui uma sequência TGTCTA a qual está justaposta ao possível TATA-box no promotor do gene podendo se tratar de uma região de provável co-interação entre as duas proteínas. As proteínas CsARF e PthA2, em ensaios gel "shift", demonstraram afinidade por esta região, o que corrobora com a hipótese de co-interação nessa região. Os resultados demonstram que esta região do DNA mostra se como importante alvo de estudo, envolvendo interações correlacionadas com o desenvolvimento da doença / Abstract: Brazil is the biggest in the world in the citrus production, but many diseases threaten the Brazilian citrus cultivation, among them the citric canker, a disease characterized by hyperplastic lesions on the host surface, having Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xcc) as the causal agent of citrus canker. It is known that the bacterium translocates effector proteins into the host cell to modulate transcription in the plant, including the PthA protein which itself is capable of inducing tissue hyperplasia and hypertrophy. Recently, it was shown that X. citri induces the expression of genes involved in cell wall remodeling, synthesis, mobilization and signaling of auxin and gibberellic acid, main plant hormones controlling cell growth and division. Furthermore, auxin and gibberellin are capable to activate the expression of cellulases and expansins and both of them are necessary for the development of citrus canker. Moreover, we verified the interaction between PthA and the protein ARF (auxin response factor) of Citrus sinensis (CsARF), and that promoter of the gene of expansins citrus (CsExp) it was induced by X. citri and auxin, which contains a sequence similar to known AuxRe, cis-regulatory elements in response to auxin, located adjacent to the probable TATA-box. Therefore, we analyzed the 5' region upstream of the gene CsExp of C. sinensis in order to know if in fact represents the minimal promoter of the gene and if AuxRE-box-like functions as regulatory element in response to auxin._ In the test transformation of CsEXP for activating GUS, the promoter region was responsive to auxin, the results were promising, because the minimal promoter of the gene was responsive to auxin in vivo assays, which have confirmed the activation of the reporter gene by auxin, with therefore an upregulation of the gene by the hormone. There is a synergy between the proteins PthA2 and PthA4 with auxin in the regulation. This region contains the AuxRE-like-box which has a sequence TGTCTA which is juxtaposed to the potential TATA-box within the promoter of the gene, possibly being a region of likely joint-interaction for the two proteins._PthA2 and CsARF Proteins in gel shift tests demonstrated affinity for this region, which could confirms the hypothesis of the region to be a region of jointinteraction. The results were significant and this region of the DNA shown to be an important target for study of interactions likely correlated with the development of the disease / Mestrado / Bioquimica / Mestra em Biologia Funcional e Molecular

Rhizoctoniasis of potato occurs in all regions of the world where the crop is grown. The disease is caused by various anastomosis groups (AGs) of the fungus Rhizoctonia solani, of which AG-3 is the most common. Very little information is available on the AGs involved in potato rhizoctoniasis in South Africa. This study elucidated the etiology of the disease in the country and also provided guidelines regarding alternative control strategies. The vast majority (99.3 %) of R. solani isolates from symptomatic potato tubers collected at seven of the 14 potato production regions in South Africa belonged to AG-3, and 0.7 % to AG-5. Of the isolates from infected stems and roots, 82.1 % were AG-3, 12.8 % AG-4, and 5.1 % AG-5. Isolations from soil yielded 67.7 % AG-3, 22.0 % AG-4, 5.5 % AG-5, and 2.4 % of each of AG-7 and AG-8. In vitro screening indicated that AG-3 isolates were the most virulent. The progeny of seed tubers naturally infected with R. solani was rendered free of infection by dipping the tubers in hot water at 55 C for 8 minutes, 60 ºC for 6 minutes, or 65 ºC for 4 minutes. However, treatments more severe than 55 ºC for 8 minutes progressively increased tuber mortality. OA5 DP, an organic tin complex, proved to be the most effective of 20 disinfectants for killing sclerotia of the pathogen on seed tubers and rendering the progeny free of infection, but exhibited acute phytotoxicity towards the tubers. Significant control without any phytotoxicity was achieved with the didecyl ammonium chloride compound, Sporekill. Tolclofos-methyl was the only fungicide that provided total control of potato rhizoctoniasis, whereas seed tuber treatment with fludioxonil, kresoxim-methyl and metam-sodium significantly reduced disease in the progeny. Incorporation of of the biocontrol formulation TrykocideTM (Trichoderma harzianum) into soils artificially infested with R. solani AG-3 eradicated the pathogen. Significant reductions in pathogen populations were also evident in soils amended with azoxystrobin, kresoxim-methyl, MaxifloTM Azospirillum brasilense), AvogreenTM (Bacillus subtilis), cattle, chicken and sheep manure, citrus and mango waste compost, composted kraal manure, and shoot tissues of Brassica napus, B. oleracea var. capitata, Raphanus sativus, Sinapsis alba and Tagetes minuta. TrykocideTM provided total control of stem canker in artificially infested soil, whereas kresoxim-methyl, azoxystrobin, sheep manure, B. napus and B. oleracea var. capitata shoot tissue, mango waste compost, and the systemic resistance-inducing compound, acibenzolar-s-methyl, reduced the disease significantly. / Dissertation (MSc (Plant Pathology))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Microbiology and Plant Pathology / unrestricted

To improve understanding of the effectiveness of host resistance against Leptosphaeria spp., three aspects of effectiveness of resistance were investigated. With focus on the major Rlm-mediated resistance against L. maculans, changes in effectiveness of Rlm7-mediated resistance to prevent initiation of disease epidemics at the leaf spot stage were investigated in winter oilseed rape field experiments at five sites in the UK over the period with the cropping seasons 2009/2010 - 2013/2014. L. maculans isolates virulent against Rlm7 were identified in the UK. This may be associated with observed changes in lesion phenotypes on the Rlm7 cultivars in field conditions. However, despite increased severity of phoma leaf spotting on Rlm7 cultivars, there was no associated increase in phoma stem canker severity at the end of the cropping seasons. The effectiveness of winter oilseed rape cultivars for control of phoma stem canker (caused by L. maculans or L. biglobosa) was affected by the coexistence of the two Leptosphaeria species in oilseed rape crops. Weather conditions influenced ascospore release of both species and favoured L. biglobosa ascospore release in 2011, resulting in subsequent increased L. biglobosa phoma leaf spotting and stem canker severity. However, coexistence of Leptosphaeria spp. on oilseed rape crops was affected by the cultivar resistance against L. maculans. CE experiments showed that there were interactions between the two Leptosphaeria spp. in planta. Their coexistence on B. napus was influenced by the different host responses that they trigger during host colonisation. Effects of increased temperature on effectiveness of resistance against L. maculans and on severity of symptoms by Leptosphaeria spp. on B. napus were investigated. Increased temperature affected both Rlm4- and Rlm7-mediated resistance, when assessed by phenotypic and molecular techniques. Increased temperature was associated with increased symptom severity, for both L. maculans and L. biglobosa lesions on plants. Cultivar quantitative resistance background increased effectiveness of resistance against phoma stem canker pathogens at increased temperature and should be deployed in in strategies for adaptation to climate change to avoid increased phoma stem canker epidemics in the future.

In the realm of tree fruit cultivation, the management of various diseases affecting pome fruits like apples and pears is crucial for sustaining production. This study amalgamates findings from three distinct disease investigations to propose an integrated approach to their management. Firstly, in pursuit of mitigating shoot blight severity caused by Erwinia amylovora and preventing fire blight cankers on pear trees, a two-year evaluation was conducted. The study assessed the efficacy of preventive treatments, including foliar spray and trunk injection applications of Giant Knotweed Extract (RSE) alongside antibiotics. Results highlighted the effectiveness of RSE in controlling both shoot blight severity and canker incidence, offering a sustainable alternative to antibiotics. Secondly, in addressing the bitter rot of apples caused by Colletotrichum spp., eighteen fungicide treatments were evaluated over two years, focusing on newer fungicide options to mitigate fungicide resistance development. Fungicides such as Omega, Aprovia, Ferbam, Captan, Ziram, and Cabrio were proven reliable management tools, complementing the existing effective fungicides that growers heavily depend on. Lastly, the emergence of European canker (Neonectria ditissima) on cider apple cultivars was investigated. Molecular analysis confirmed the presence of N. ditissima as the causal agent, posing a significant threat to cider apple production. Koch's postulates were fulfilled through various tests, proving the pathogenicity of N. ditissima. Further research avenues, including genome sequencing were conducted to enhance understanding and control of a devastating pathogen like N. ditissima. Integrating findings from these studies proposes a comprehensive management strategy incorporating preventive spray programs, alternative fungicides, and pathogen identification to combat these diseases effectively, ensuring sustainable production of apples and pears in orchards. This holistic approach offers growers a multifaceted toolkit to manage diseases effectively, safeguarding apple and pear orchards' productivity and economic viability. / Master of Science in Life Sciences / In the world of growing apples and pears, keeping diseases under control is crucial for keeping orchards thriving and productive. We conducted studies on three endemic and emerging diseases aiming to create a well-rounded approach to managing them. First, we looked into ways to reduce the impact of shoot blight and fire blight cankers on pear trees caused by a devastating bacterium Erwinia amylovora. We tested the efficacy of preventive spray applications of plant extract of giant knotweed alongside antibiotics and found more sustainable alternatives to antibiotics that effectively control this disease. Next, we studied bitter rot disease in apples caused by many different species of fungi in Colletotrichum genus. We determined the efficacy of eighteen different biorational and synthetic fungicide spray programs over two years to find new options that can help prevent fungicide resistance development against currently available fungicides in the market. Several fungicides showed promise in managing this disease including Omega, Aprovia, Ferbam, Captan, Ziram and Cabrio, adding to the effective materials that growers already rely on. Lastly, we investigated the emergence of European canker on cider apple trees. This disease, caused by a fungus Neonectria ditissima, poses a serious threat to cider production. We confirmed the pathogen's identity and its capability of causing the disease in controlled experiments. We propose a comprehensive strategy for managing these diseases by including preventive spray applications of alternative materials and classic fungicides, combined with accurately identifying the pathogens. Our holistic approach provides growers with a range of tools to effectively protect their orchards, ensuring sustainable production of both apples and pears.

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O cancro cítrico, causado por Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri (Xac), é um dos mais graves problemas fitossanitário da citricultura brasileira. Com a introdução da lagarta minadora dos citros (Phyllocnistis citrella [LMC]), houve um aumento drástico do número de focos do cancro cítrico, além da mudança do padrão espacial de fortemente agregado para moderadamente agregado e ao acaso. Foram avaliados: (1) suscetibilidade de três condições foliares: folha intacta, ferimento mecânico e injúria de LMC nas fases ovo, 1º ínstar, 3º ínstar e pupa, inoculados em diferentes concentrações de Xac (101, 102, 104 e 106 ufc/ml); (2) período de suscetibilidade da folha intacta, do ferimento mecânico e injúria de LMC inoculados a 106 ufc/ml; e (3) efeito da temperatura (12, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 e 42°C) e duração do molhamento foliar (0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 e 24 h) em folhas sem ferimento inoculadas a 106 ufc/ml. A concentração mínima de inóculo para causar sintomas da doença em folha intacta, injúria de LMC fase ovo e 1º ínstar foi de 104 ufc/ml; em ferimento mecânico e injúria de LMC fase 3º ínstar e pupa, 102 ufc/ml. Injúria da fase pupa resultou em grande severidade do que nos demais tratamentos a 106 ufc/ml (2 vezes maior do que em folha intacta).O período de suscetibilidade da injúria de LMC foi seis vezes mais longo do que do ferimento mecânico e a máxima suscetibilidade foi três vezes maior que em folha intacta. A LMC está relacionada com o aumento do dano que expõem mesofilo foliar à infecção direta de Xac, aumentando a suscetibilidade da folha por longo período. A faixa de temperatura ótima para o desenvolvimento do cancro cítrico foi de 25-35ºC. Entretanto, a severidade foi mais alta entre 30-35ºC. Sintomas de cancro não desenvolveram a 42ºC e na ausência de molhamento foliar. O efeito da temperatura foi maior do que a duração do molhamento foliar. A mínima duração de molhamento para infecção de Xac foi menor que 4 horas. / Asiatic citrus canker, caused by X. axonopodispv.citri (Xac), is one of the most serious phytosanitary problems in Brazilian citrus crops.The introduction of the citrus leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella [CLM]), has resulted in an increase in the number of disease foci and has changed the spatial pattern of citrus canker symptomatic trees from strong aggregation to intermediate aggregation and random patterns. We evaluated: (1) susceptibility of three distinct leaf condition: intact leaves, mechanical wounding, and injury caused by CLM at the egg stage, 1st instar, 3rd instar, and pupal stage, inoculated at different concentration of Xac (101, 102, 104, and 106 cfu/ml); (2) susceptibility period of intact leaves, mechanical wounding, and CLM injury inoculated at 106 ufc/ml; and (3) effect of temperature (12, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 and 42°C) and leaf wetness durations (0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, and 24 h) on unwounded leaves inoculated at 106 ufc/ml. The minimum inoculum concentration to cause symptom development in intact leaves, CLM injury at the egg stage and 1st instar was 104 cfu/ml; in mechanically wounded leaves and CLM injuries at the 3rd instar and pupa stage, 102 cfu/ml. The injuries from pupa stage resulted in greater disease severity than other treatments at 106 cfu/ml (two times higher than in the intact leaf). Susceptibility period of CLM injury was six time longer than mechanical wounding and maximum observed susceptibility was three times higher than intact leaf. CLM is related to the amount of damage that exposes mesophyll cells to direct Xac infection, increasing the susceptibility of leaf for long period. Optimal temperature for development of citrus canker was 25-35°C. However, disease severity was highest in the range 30-35°C. Symptoms did not develop at 42°C and zero hour of leaf wetness duration. Effect of temperature was .greater than leaf wetness duration. The minimum wetness duration for Xac infection was as short as 4 h.