Negotiated settlements, formal treaties to unilateral cease-fires, are often accepted to be the preferable method to end war. When negotiated agreements are used in the normal business of international politics they can be potentially helpful devices; however, when they are relied upon for a nation's security or war prevention and conclusion they can prove disastrous. It is the presence of force variables, and not the formality of an agreement which effectively concludes a war. I recategorize success of an agreement to not only mean failure of a return to war, but also whether the tenets of an agreement are actually followed. I utilize a modified version of Fortna's conflict dataset and run three separate logit analyses to test the effectiveness of settlements in a medium n quantitative analysis. If politicians and policy makers realize that it is not treaties that establish peace but the costs of war and military might then perhaps the world will be a more peaceful place.

The thesis studies the relations of Communist China's foreign policy and its military offensives in the battlefield in Korean Peninsula in late 1950 and early 1951, an important topic that has yet received little academic attention. As original research, this thesis cites extensively from newly declassified Soviet and Chinese archives, as well as American and UN sources. This paper finds that an adventurism dominated the thinking and decision-making of Communist leaders in Beijing and Moscow, who seriously underestimated the military capabilities and diplomatic leverages of the US-led West. The origin of this adventurism, this paper argues, lays in the CCP's civil war experience with their Nationalist adversaries, which featured a preference of mobile warfare over positional warfare, and an opportunist attitude on cease-fire. This adventurism ended only when Communist front line came to the verge of collapse in June 1951.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-07-22T20:49:48Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2011-03-30 / Associação Fundo de Incentivo à Psicofarmacologia (AFIP) / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / Objetivos: O objetivo deste estudo foi: 1. trazer à tona as razões envolvidas no momento que o usuário decide cessar o consumo de crack; 2. detalhar sobre as estratégias escolhidas por esse usuário para consolidar esse desejo Metodologia: Utilizou-se a metodologia qualitativa de pesquisa com amostra intencional por critérios constituída de 43 usuários/ex-usuários. Instrumentos utilizados: entrevista em profundidade semi-estruturada; roteiro de entrevista; informante-chave; triangulação. A amostra construída pela técnica de bola-de-neve e com a ajuda dos informantes-chave foi constituída de dez cadeias. As entrevistas foram transcritas literalmente, inseridas e analisadas no software Nvivo 8, com exploração dos dados mediante as técnicas de análise de conteúdo. Resultados: As razões alegadas pelos entrevistados para cessar o consumo de crack estão ligadas às perdas/danos pelos quais passam ao longo da trajetória de consumo. A vontade de parar não surge imediatamente após esses danos, como se esperaria, pelo contrário, o usuário geralmente vive um extenso período com várias perdas consecutivas. É só quando alcança um momento de grande Desamparo que o usuário passa por uma tomada de consciência de que é necessário fazer alguma coisa em função de si mesmo, e evoca, dentre os danos que sofreu, aqueles que considera mais significativos atribuindo-lhes o motivo para cessar o consumo de crack. Os usuários desta pesquisa comentam sobre o desalento (viver na rua), constrangimentos com a lei (ser preso) ou riscos de morte, dentre outras razões, expressando a percepção de uma situação que precisa ser revertida. Dentre as estratégias para cessar, os tratamentos formais foram as mais procuradas, entendendo-se nesse termo qualquer modalidade (ambulatorial, internação e grupos de mútua-ajuda). Conclusão: O trabalho traz algumas reflexões tais como: apesar das consequências sofridas pelo usuário de crack ao longo do tempo, parece que a sua decisão de parar o consumo dá-se somente quando ele alcança o Desamparo, o que pode significar uma busca tardia por tratamento para cessar o consumo. Este fato pode ser parte da explicação do porquê o usuário de crack dificilmente alcança a abstinência duradoura, repetindo ao longo do tempo o ciclo dependênciaabstinência- recaída. / Objectives: The aim of this study was: 1. Bringing out the reasons involved when the user decides to cease the use of crack cocaine, 2. detailing the strategies chosen by this user to consolidate this wish. Methodology: Qualitative research methodology has been used with purposive sampling by criteria consisted of 43 users/ex-users. Instruments used: in depth semi-structured interview, guided interview, key informant; triangulation. The sample was formed by the snow-ball technique and used key informants assistance and it consisted of ten strings. The interviews were transcribed verbatim, they were inserted and analyzed in NVivo 8 software, with data exploration through the techniques of content analysis. Results: The reasons given by the interviewee to cease the use of crack cocaine are related to loss/damage for which they pass along the path of consumption. The desire to quit does not appear immediately after this damage, as one would expect, just the opposite, the user usually experiences a long period with several consecutive losses. It is only when it reaches a moment of great helplessness that the user goes through an awareness of the need to do something to himself, and recalls, among the damages, those that are more meaningful by relating them to the reason to stop the consumption of crack. Users on this research comment about the discouragement (street life), constraints to the law (being arrested) or risk of death, among other reasons, expressing the perception of a situation that needs to be reversed. Among the strategies of stopping, the formal treatments were sought the most, it being understood on this term any modality (outpatient, inpatient and mutual-help groups). Conclusion: The paper offers some reflections such as: despite the consequences suffered by crack users over time, it appears that his decision of stopping the consumption takes place only when he reaches the helplessness, which can mean a late search for treatment to stop the consumption.This can be part of the explanation of why the crack user difficultly achieves a lasting abstinence, repeating over time the dependencyabstinence- relapse cycle. / TEDE / BV UNIFESP: Teses e dissertações

Les difficultés qui peuvent être rencontrées par une entreprise sont multiformes et de degrés variables. Lorsqu’elles n’ont pas atteint le seuil suffisant permettant de déclencher une procédure collective, le chef d’entreprise rechigne bien souvent à dévoiler la véritable situation de leur entreprise. Les réticences à l’officialisation des difficultés tiennent parfois à des contingences socioculturelles tandis ou à des considérations d’ordre juridique. Le chef d’entreprise craint, le plus souvent, qu’il soit porté atteinte à l’exercice des prérogatives et responsabilités dont il a pratiquement seul la charge. L’apparition des difficultés peut déclencher divers contrôles de gestion de l’entreprise, mais aussi provoquer une réaction de méfiance, voire le retrait de certains partenaires financiers et/ou des collaborateurs importants. Les hésitations à révéler la situation préoccupante de l’entreprise s’expliquent aussi par le secret des affaires. En l’absence d’un véritable droit à l’information au profit des travailleurs, le chef d’entreprise peut juger de l’opportunité de donner ou non des informations. L’intérêt de l’entreprise est souvent invoqué pour justifier le silence, mais aussi pour canaliser la réaction des travailleurs. S’il s’exprime, le chef d’entreprise va pouvoir choisir les informations ainsi que le canal par lequel elles doivent parvenir aux destinataires.La procédure d’alerte en droit OHADA destinée à « réveiller les dirigeants insouciants de l’état périlleux de l’entreprise » mérite d’être saluée. L’employeur peut répondre aux difficultés par l’évitement des liens d’emplois, le développement des emplois précaires, l’externalisation et le recours aux travailleurs réellement ou non indépendants.La décision de restructuration prise par le dirigeant a des conséquences négatives sur la situation des salariés. L’article 11.8 du Code du travail qui impose le maintien des contrats de travail en cas de modification dans la situation juridique de l’employeur vise à en atténuer les conséquences. Il tente de préserver l’emploi et de permettre la poursuite de l’activité. Théoriquement, il s’agit d’une protection essentielle des salariés, mais en pratique, la "garantie d’emploi" est limitée à la seule période du changement de la situation juridique. L’ancien employeur et son successeur ne sont pas totalement privés de leur pouvoir de licencier, mais le transfert d’activité ne peut constituer en tant que tel un motif légitime de rupture des contrats. L’absence de solidarité légale entre les employeurs successifs rend difficile le paiement intégral des créances salariales.Pour autant, les travailleurs ne sont pas totalement abandonnés face à la décision patronale de procéder à des licenciements pour motif économique ; une procédure particulière doit être observée. Elle constitue l'ultime espoir de limitation de suppression d’emplois. Enfin, la liquidation de l’entreprise est synonyme de disparition des emplois. À cette occasion, la priorité est accordée aux mesures visant à sauver le capital. Le juge-commissaire qui a la responsabilité de se prononcer sur la réduction ou non du personnel décide presque toujours dans le sens souhaité par le dirigeant. Toutefois, lors de la formation du concordat, les travailleurs peuvent faire valoir des arguments permettant d’améliorer la consistance des mesures d’accompagnement de la suppression des emplois. La protection des intérêts des travailleurs en cas de difficultés de l’entreprise est insuffisante tant du point de vue des procédures que de l’indemnisation de la perte de l’emploi, ceci a notamment pour conséquence bien souvent d’attraire les salariés licenciés vers l’économie informelle pour assurer leur survie et celle de leur famille. / The difficulties that can be encountered by a company are multiform and varying degrees. When they have not reached the sufficient threshold to trigger a collective procedure, the entrepreneur often refrains from revealing the true situation of their company. The reluctance to formalize difficulties sometimes arises from socio-cultural contingencies, or from legal considerations. In most cases, the entrepreneur fears that the exercise of the prerogatives and responsibilities of which he is almost solely responsible will be undermined. The emergence of difficulties can trigger various management controls of the company, but also provoke a reaction of mistrust, or even the withdrawal of some financial partners and / or important collaborators. The hesitation to reveal the worrying situation of the company is also explained by the secrecy of business. In the absence of a genuine right to information for the benefit of workers, the entrepreneur may decide whether or not to give information. The interest of the company is often invoked to justify the silence, but also to channel the reaction of the workers. If he speaks, the entrepreneur will be able to choose the information and the channel by which he must reach the recipients.The procedure of warning in OHADA law to "awaken the careless leaders of the perilous state of the enterprise" deserves to be welcomed. The employer can respond to difficulties by avoiding job bonds, developing precarious jobs, outsourcing and using genuine or non-independent workers.The restructuring decision taken by the manager has negative consequences for the employees' situation. Section 11.8 of the Labor Code, which requires the maintenance of employment contracts in the event of a change in the employer's legal position, is intended to mitigate the consequences. It tries to preserve employment and to allow the continuation of the activity. Theoretically, this is an essential protection for employees, but in practice the "employment guarantee" is limited to the only period of change in the legal situation. The former employer and his successor are not totally deprived of their power to dismiss, but the transfer of activity can not as such constitute a legitimate reason for breach of contract. The lack of legal solidarity between successive employers makes it difficult to pay full wage claims.However, the workers are not totally abandoned in the face of the employer's decision to make redundancies for economic reasons; a special procedure must be observed. It is the ultimate hope of limiting job losses. Finally, the liquidation of the company is synonymous with the disappearance of jobs. On this occasion, priority is given to measures to save capital. The judge-commissioner who is responsible for deciding on the reduction or not of the staff decides almost always in the direction desired by the officer. However, during the formation of the composition, the workers can put forward arguments to improve the consistency of measures accompanying the abolition of jobs. The protection of workers' interests in the event of company difficulties is insufficient both from the procedural point of view and from the compensation for loss of employment. This often leads to the attraction of redundant employees the informal economy to ensure their survival and that of their families.

One of the most important transformations of contemporary Administrative Law Penalties is the one related to the openness to cooperation with private actors, considering that one of its expressions is the commitment to cease.In this academic paper, the author realizes a theoretical approach on the legal concept of concerted administration regarding penalties, and analyzes its regulation within sectoral rules. Finally, he offers some criticisms of the use of this concept by the public administration. / Una de las transformaciones más importantes del Derecho Administrativo Sancionador contemporáneo es la relativa a la apertura a la concertación con los agentes privados, siendo una de sus expresiones el compromiso de cese. En el presente artículo, el autor realiza un acercamiento teórico a la figura de la administración concertada en el ámbito sancionador, y analiza su regulación en normas sectoriales. Finalmente, ensaya críticas sobre la utilización de esta figura por parte de la Administración Pública.

"Ideally, peacekeeping operations demonstrate the concern of the international community in situations of instability or conflict arising between or within states. They are conceived to bring about peace and 'ensure the effective promotion and protection of [human] rights'. As a result, peacekeeping operations as well as peacekeepers are expected to comply with standards of human rights and humanitarian law. With respect to the Economic Community of West African States Cease-Fire Monitoring Group (ECOMOG), its intervention in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte d'Ivoire have been generally welcomed as a response to barbaric and devastating wars in West Africa. However, the observation of ECOMOG missions reveals several instances of violations of human rights and humanitarian law committed by ECOMOG peacekeepers. These violations include attacks against civilians, summary executions, rapes, torture, looting, etc. In other words, the saviours have turned into violators of rights. While these violations have provoked concern and indignation, few measures have been taken to address the problem, hold peacekeepers accountable and prevent abuses in the future. ... This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter one provides, among other, the background of the study, the statement of the research problem and the significance of the study. Chapter two gives an insight into the creation, structure, mechanisms and evolution of ECOMOG as the peacekeeping organ of ECOWAS. Chapter three examines the basis for the applicability of human rights and international humanitarian law to peacekeepers and shows the violations committed by the ECOMOG peacekeepers since 1990. Chapter four analyses the responses to abuses committed by ECOMOG peacekeepers. It discusses the national, regional and universal responses to these abuses. It investigates both prevention and accountability mechanisms existing to address abuses committed by ECOMOG peacekeepers. It also explores some potential accountability and prevention mechanisms. Finally, chapter five makes some concluding remarks and suggests specific recommendations for the improvement of the existing responses." -- Introduction. / Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2004. / http://www.chr.up.ac.za/academic_pro/llm1/dissertations.html / Centre for Human Rights / LLM

L’Afrique est, depuis quelques décennies, « la zone stratégique la plus déstabilisée de la planète ». La question des conflits armés constitue un véritable « casse-tête africain » aussi bien pour les acteurs locaux qu’internationaux qui s’y intéressent en ce que son caractère interne contraste avec les conséquences transnationales qui en résultent.Comment sortir de cette insécurité chronique et de la guerre civile qui guette en permanence derrière le rideau et parvenir à une stabilité et un développement durables afin de limiter au mieux les nombreuses violations des droits de l’homme occasionnées à cet effet?Des approches de solution n’ont pas manqué, allant de la solution militaire, peu respectueuse des vies humaines, à la solution négociée qui appelle au génie créatif de l’homme et de son intelligence, soucieuse de préserver le genre humain en « imaginant » ou en « inventant » des compromis inscrits dans des accords, essentiellement, politiques. C’est donc, à juste titre, que l’objet de notre étude porte sur cette question africaine traduite par un intitulé très actuel : « Les accords politiques dans la résolution des conflits armés internes en Afrique ». L’analyse envisagée dans la présente étude expose la conclusion des accords politiques en insistant distinctement sur l’environnement politique de leur formation ainsi que le cadre juridique qui les caractérise, d’une part. D’autre part, il paraît indiqué d’examiner l’application de ces accords en décortiquant la feuille de route dans laquelle ils évoluent en vue d’en dresser un bilan scientifiquement objectif afin de mesurer l’effectivité de leur mise en œuvre et leur efficacité en matière de protection des droits de l’homme. / Since some decades, Africa is «the most destabilized strategic area of the plane. » the issue of armed conflicts represent a real «African puzzle» as well for local actors as international ones who are involve in, with its internal characteristic contrast with the transnational consequences which result from.How to get out of this chronically in security and the civil war which permanently watch out behind curtain in order to reach sustainable development and stability in order to better limit numerous violations of human rights done in that fact?Some approaches of solution are numerous, going from military solution less respecting human lives, to the negociated solutions which call for the human genius and his intelligent, anxious to preserve human gender by «imaging» or by « inventing» Compromises signed in agreements, essentially political. Its then, precisely that African issue translated by an updated heading: agreements in the resolution of internal armed conflits in Africa. »The analysis considered in the present study will expose the conclusion of political agreements by insisting distinctly on political environment, their formation as well on the legal framework which characterizes them, on one hand. On the other hand, it seems important to examine the application of those agreements by analyzing in details the agenda in which they evoluate in order to draw up scientifically the balance sheet of the objective in order to assess the affectivity of their implementation and their effectiveness in domain of human rights protection.

Thèse réalisée en cotutelle avec la faculté de droit de l'Université d'Orléans en France. / Menée pour la première fois, l’étude des différentes dimensions de la prévention (la précaution, la cessation et la dissuasion) est rendue possible par la découverte des sanctions préventives en droit de la responsabilité civile. Les sanctions préventives sont nombreuses en jurisprudence en vue de prévenir le dommage à différents stades : avant la réalisation du fait dommageable (mesure de prévention et de précaution), au cours de sa réalisation (mesure de cessation), après sa réalisation (dommages et intérêts provisionnels) et après sa reconnaissance juridique (dommages et intérêts punitifs). Concevoir une notion de sanction préventive devient alors essentiel pour comprendre les évolutions contemporaines du droit. Définie comme l’effet de droit résultant d’une interprétation de la norme susceptible d’être violée, la sanction préventive démontre que l’action introduite précocement par le justiciable peut aboutir. Si ces évolutions bouleversent les conditions classiques de la responsabilité, elles s’expliquent en revanche par une représentation de la responsabilité civile à partir de ses effets. Sous l’angle des effets, l’existence des sanctions préventives met en lumière une mise en effet judiciaire des normes dans une finalité préventive. La mise en effet est une opération effectuée en pratique par le juge entre l’interprétation et l’exécution de la norme. Ce temps de la mise en effet est celui durant lequel le juge choisit l’effet de droit apte à résoudre le litige. Or, le choix de la sanction par le juge n’est pas entièrement libre. En effet, les sanctions préventives naissent d’un besoin sécuritaire. Cette effectivité désirée par les justiciables exerce une influence sur la mise en effet de la norme par le juge par l’introduction précoce de l’action en justice. Qualifier les manifestations préventives de la responsabilité civile de sanctions juridiques naissant d’une opération judiciaire de mise en effet des normes permet ainsi de mieux rendre compte de la pratique du droit au sein d’une théorie renouvelée du procès. / The discovery of Preventive Sanction in the Law of civil responsibility is made possible by studying, for the first time, the various aspects of prevention (deterrence, cessation, precaution). To prevent harm at different stages of realization, case law makes a broad use of Preventive Sanction: before harm is done (precautionary and preventive measures), while it is done (stop and cease order), after it is done (temporary damages) and after is has been legally recognized (punitive damages). Crafting a notion of Preventive Sanction becomes then central to the understanding of contemporary legal developments. Preventive Sanction defined as the legal effects arising from the construction of a norm which might be broken, show that early action brought by a plaintiff can be successful. The transformation of traditional requirements for responsibility by these developments can be explained by reframing civil responsibility from its effects. This perspective allows for the preventive goal of judicial effectuation to be brought to light by the existence of Preventive Sanction. In practice, effectuation is performed by the judge and takes place between the construction and implementation of legal norms. The moment of effectuation occurs when the judge selects the legal effects destined to resolve a dispute. However, the judge is not entirely free when choosing a sanction. Preventive sanction originates from a need of security. Through early introduction of legal action, effectivity sought by plaintiffs impacts judicial effectuation of legal norms. The practice of law, within a renewed theory of judicial action, is better accounted for by reframing “preventive expression” of the Law of civil responsibility as “legal sanction” arising from the judicial effectuation of legal norms.

Menée pour la première fois, l’étude des différentes dimensions de la prévention (la précaution, la cessation et la dissuasion) est rendue possible par la découverte des sanctions préventives en droit de la responsabilité civile. Les sanctions préventives sont nombreuses en jurisprudence en vue de prévenir le dommage à différents stades : avant la réalisation du fait dommageable (mesure de prévention et de précaution), au cours de sa réalisation (mesure de cessation), après sa réalisation (dommages et intérêts provisionnels) et après sa reconnaissance juridique (dommages et intérêts punitifs). Concevoir une notion de sanction préventive devient alors essentiel pour comprendre les évolutions contemporaines du droit. Définie comme l’effet de droit résultant d’une interprétation de la norme susceptible d’être violée, la sanction préventive démontre que l’action introduite précocement par le justiciable peut aboutir. Si ces évolutions bouleversent les conditions classiques de la responsabilité, elles s’expliquent en revanche par une représentation de la responsabilité civile à partir de ses effets. Sous l’angle des effets, l’existence des sanctions préventives met en lumière une mise en effet judiciaire des normes dans une finalité préventive. La mise en effet est une opération effectuée en pratique par le juge entre l’interprétation et l’exécution de la norme. Ce temps de la mise en effet est celui durant lequel le juge choisit l’effet de droit apte à résoudre le litige. Or, le choix de la sanction par le juge n’est pas entièrement libre. En effet, les sanctions préventives naissent d’un besoin sécuritaire. Cette effectivité désirée par les justiciables exerce une influence sur la mise en effet de la norme par le juge par l’introduction précoce de l’action en justice. Qualifier les manifestations préventives de la responsabilité civile de sanctions juridiques naissant d’une opération judiciaire de mise en effet des normes permet ainsi de mieux rendre compte de la pratique du droit au sein d’une théorie renouvelée du procès. / The discovery of Preventive Sanction in the Law of civil responsibility is made possible by studying, for the first time, the various aspects of prevention (deterrence, cessation, precaution). To prevent harm at different stages of realization, case law makes a broad use of Preventive Sanction: before harm is done (precautionary and preventive measures), while it is done (stop and cease order), after it is done (temporary damages) and after is has been legally recognized (punitive damages). Crafting a notion of Preventive Sanction becomes then central to the understanding of contemporary legal developments. Preventive Sanction defined as the legal effects arising from the construction of a norm which might be broken, show that early action brought by a plaintiff can be successful. The transformation of traditional requirements for responsibility by these developments can be explained by reframing civil responsibility from its effects. This perspective allows for the preventive goal of judicial effectuation to be brought to light by the existence of Preventive Sanction. In practice, effectuation is performed by the judge and takes place between the construction and implementation of legal norms. The moment of effectuation occurs when the judge selects the legal effects destined to resolve a dispute. However, the judge is not entirely free when choosing a sanction. Preventive sanction originates from a need of security. Through early introduction of legal action, effectivity sought by plaintiffs impacts judicial effectuation of legal norms. The practice of law, within a renewed theory of judicial action, is better accounted for by reframing “preventive expression” of the Law of civil responsibility as “legal sanction” arising from the judicial effectuation of legal norms. / Thèse réalisée en cotutelle avec la faculté de droit de l'Université d'Orléans en France.

V ANGLICKÉM JAZYCE Private-law consequences of a breach of competition law and their enforcement in the Czech Republic The private-law consequences of a breach of competition law, Articles 101 and 102 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU and Sections 3 and 11 of the Czech Competition Act, may affect many entities, irrespective of whether they are competitors or consumers. Recently, emphasis has been placed on private enforcement of competition law that is intended to serve as an important complement to public law enforcement. The first part of the dissertation defines basic concepts and principles of competition law including "public rules on restriction of competition". The history of the enforcement of competition law in the Czech Republic and the dynamic development in this area at the EU level are outlined in the second part. The third crucial part of this work deals with the right to damages caused by a breach of competition law in the Czech Republic. In 2014, the EU adopted Directive 2014/104 on certain rules in damages actions with the view, inter alia, to increase the effectiveness of private enforcement of competition rules by civil courts of EU Member States. On August 18, 2017, new Act No. 262/2017 Coll. which implements the Directive into Czech law was adopted. The dissertation...