The stringent response plays a significant role in the survival of bacteria during different environmental conditions. It is activated by the binding of stringent factor (SF) to stalled ribosomes that have an unacylated tRNA in the ribosomal A-site which leads to the synthesis of (p)ppGpp. ppGpp binds to the RNA polymerase, resulting in a rapid down-regulation of rRNA and tRNA transcription and up-regulation of mRNAs coding for enzymes involved in amino acid biosynthesis. The importance of the A-site and unacylated tRNA in the activation of SF was confirmed by chemical modification and subsequent primer extension experiments (footprinting experiments) which showed that binding of SF to ribosomes resulted in the protection of regions in 23S rRNA, the A-loop and helix 89 that are involved in the binding of the A-site tRNA. An in vitro assay showed that the ribosomal protein L11 and its flexible N-terminal part was important in the activation of SF. Interestingly the N-terminal part of L11 was shown to activate SF on its own and this activation was dependent on both ribosomes and an unacylated tRNA in the A-site. The N-terminal part of L11 was suggested to mediate an interaction between ribosome-bound SF and the unacylated tRNA in the A-site or interact with SF and the unacylated tRNA independently of each other. Footprinting experiments showed that SF bound to the ribosome protected bases in the L11 binding domain of the ribosome that were not involved in an interaction with ribosomal protein L11. The sarcin/ricin loop, in close contact with the L11 binding domain on the ribosome and essential for the binding and activation of translation elongation factors was also found to be protected by the binding of SF. Altogether the presented results suggest that SF binds to the factor-binding stalk of the ribosome and that activation of SF is dependent on the flexible N-terminal domain of L11 and an interaction of SF with the unacylated tRNA in the A-site of the 50S subunit.

Integrins are a protein family of cell surface receptors, expressed in all cell types in the human body, except the red blood cells. Besides their importance in mediating physical connections with the surrounding environment, the integrin family members are also vital signalling mediators. They have no intrinsic kinase activity; instead the signals are transduced through conformational changes. In this thesis, work is presented which is focused on molecular mechanisms of integrin signal transduction. The signal transduction was first studied from a structural point of view, determining the transmembrane domain borders of a few selected integrin family members and ruling out a signalling model involving a “piston-like” movement. Then, downstream signalling events involved in the beta1 integrin-induced activation of Akt via the PI3kinase family were characterized. Our results identify a novel pathway for PI3K/Akt activation by beta1 integrins, which is independent of focal adhesion kinase (FAK), Src and EGF receptor. Furthermore, both beta1 integrins and EGF receptors induced phosphorylation of Akt at the regulatory sites Thr308 and Ser473, but only EGF receptor stimulation induced tyrosine phosphorylation of Akt. Finally, signals from beta1 integrins underlying the morphologic changes during cell spreading were studied. A rapid integrin-induced cell spreading dependent on actin polymerisation was observed by using total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy. This integrin-induced actin polymerisation was shown to be dependent on PI3K p110alpha catalytic subunit and to involve the conserved Lys756 in the beta1-integrin membrane proximal part.

Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is an autoimmune disease in which T-cells and macrophages invade the islets of Langerhans and selectively destroy the insulin producing β-cells, either directly or through the secretion of e.g. cytokines and nitric oxide (NO). This thesis has studied possible strategies to prevent T1DM. In β-cells and macrophages, NO is produced by inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). In the first study, we found that 1400W, a highly selective inhibitor of iNOS could prevent interleukin (IL)-1β induced suppression of rat islet function in vitro, but not diabetes induced by multiple low dose streptozotocin (MLDS), a well established animal model for autoimmune diabetes, in vivo. Next, we wanted to test a new type of high affinity blocker of IL-1 action, called IL-1 trap, in vitro. Here we found that an IL-1 trap could prevent the suppressive effects by IL-1β on rat pancreatic islet function. Also, it was sufficient to block the action of IL-1β to prevent islet cell death induced by a combination of IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α and interferon-γ. In study III, a murine IL-1 trap was found to prolong islet graft survival in the recurrence of disease (ROD) model, a T1DM model that involves syngeneic transplantation of healthy pancreatic islets to diabetic nonobese diabetic mice. Mice treated with IL-1 trap displayed an increased mRNA level of the cytokine IL-4 in isolated spleen cells. This suggests a shift towards Th2-cytokine production, which in part could explain the results. Finally, simvastatin an anti-hypercholesterolemic drug that possesses anti-inflammatory properties e.g. by interfering with transendothelial migration of leukocytes to sites of inflammation was studied. We found that the administration of simvastatin could delay, and in some mice prevent, the onset of MLDS-diabetes, and prolong islet graft survival in the ROD model.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a heterogeneous disease affecting millions of people worldwide. Both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the pathogenesis. The disease is characterized by alterations in many genes and their products. Historically, genomic alterations have mainly been studied at the transcriptional level in diabetes research. However, transcriptional changes do not always lead to altered translation, which makes it important to measure changes at the protein level. Proteomic techniques offer the possibility of measuring multiple protein alterations simultaneously. In this thesis, the proteomic technique surface enhanced laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (SELDI-TOF MS) has been applied and evaluated in the context of T2DM research. Protocols for pancreatic islet and serum/plasma protein profiling and identification have been developed. In addition, the technique was used to analyze the influence of genetic background versus diabetic environment by determining serum protein profiles of individuals with normal glucose tolerance (NGT) and T2DM with or without family history of diabetes. In total thirteen serum proteins displayed different levels in serum from persons with NGT versus patients with T2DM. Among these proteins, apolipoprotein CIII, albumin and one yet unidentified protein could be classified as being changed because of different genetic backgrounds. On the other hand, ten proteins for instance transthyretin, differed as a result of the diabetic environment. When plasma protein patterns of NGT and T2DM individuals characterized by differences in early insulin responses (EIR) were compared, nine proteins were found to be varying between the two groups. Of these proteins five were identified, namely two forms of transthyretin, hemoglobin α-chain, hemoglobin β-chain and apolipoprotein H. However no individual protein alone could explain the differences in EIR. In conclusion, SELDI-TOF MS has been successfully used in the context of T2DM research to identify proteins associated with family history of diabetes and β-bell function.

Shb is a ubiquitously expressed adaptor protein with the ability to bind several tyrosine kinase receptors and intracellular signaling proteins. Previous studies have implied a wide spectrum of Shb-mediated cellular responses, which motivated me to further investigate the role of Shb in differentiation and angiogenesis. Embryonic stem (ES) cells differentiate into endoderm and mesoderm from a bipotent mesendodermal cell population. Interregulatory signals between these germlayers are required for further specification. ES cells overexpressing Shb with an inactive SH2 domain (R522K-Shb) altered the expression of endodermal genes as a consequence of upregulated FGF expression. This response was enhanced by addition of activin A, suggesting a synergistic mechanism operative between FGF and activin A signaling in endoderm specification. To investigate a role for Shb in mesodermal specification, Shb knockout ES cells were established. These cells showed a reduced ability to form blood vessels after VEGF stimulation and delayed downregulation of genes associated with mesendoderm, indicating a reduced capacity for these cells to enter later stages. To assess a role for Shb in tumor cell apoptosis, Shb expression was silenced in angiosarcoma endothelial cells. FAK-phosphorylation was reduced in Shb knockdown cells and this made them more susceptible to apoptotic stimuli both in vitro and in vivo. Shb knockout microvasculature in mouse kidney, liver, and heart showed irregular endothelial linings with cytoplasmic projections toward the lumen, a feature that was also related to increased vascular permeability. VEGF treatment failed to stimulate vascular permeability in Shb knockout mice. In order to elucidate whether these features relate to reduced angiogenesis, tumor growth was examined. Tumors grown in knockout mice showed reduced growth capacity and lower vessel density. In conclusion, Shb is a multifunctional adaptor protein that may be involved in several cellular responses both during embryonic development and adult life.

Transplantation of pancreatic islets is a potential treatment of type 1 diabetes that aims to restore normal blood glucose control. By encapsulating the islets in alginate, they can be protected from rejection. The aim of this thesis was to study the biology of encapsulated islets and to use the technique of microencapsulation to study the effect of transplantation in a system that is separated from direct contact with the vascular system and the host tissue at the transplantation site. Encapsulated islets can effectively reverse hyperglycaemia after transplantation into the peritoneal cavity of diabetic mice. A period of culture before encapsulation and transplantation did not affect their insulin release or curative capability. Pre-culture with exendin-4 improved insulin secretion, but not to the extent that the long term outcome in our transplantation model was improved. Despite being able to reach and retain normoglycaemia, microencapsulated islets transplanted intraperitoneally decreased in size. More specifically the number of beta cells in each individual islet was decreased. However, in contrast to previous studies using non-encapsulated islets, the alpha cell number was maintained, and thus the capsule seems to protect these peripherally located and otherwise exposed cells. As the capsule also prevents revascularisation of the islets, the model was used to study the importance of vascular supply for islet amyloid formation. Islet amyloid is a possible reason for the long-term failure of transplanted islets. It is likely that their low vascular density causes a disturbed local clearance of IAPP and insulin that starts the aggregation of IAPP. Indeed, encapsulated islets had an accelerated amyloid formation compared to normal islets, and might serve as a model for further studies of this process. In conclusion, although revascularisation is not a prerequisite for islet graft function, it plays an important role for islet transplantation outcome.

The fundamental building blocks of chromatin are the nucleosomes. Each such unit is composed of about 200 bp of DNA, the well-conserved core histones (H2A, H2B, H3 and H4) and a linker histone (H1). The DNA is wound around two dimers of H2A–H2B and a tetramer comprising two molecules each of H3 and H4, and there is approximately one linker histone molecule positioned on the exterior of the DNA–protein octamer complex. The nucleosome directs the various structural transitions in chromatin that are needed for proper transcriptional regulation during differentiation and development of the organism in question. The gene activity can be regulated by different histone variants, DNA–protein interactions, and protein–protein interactions, all of which are influenced by the enormous amounts of post-translational modifications that occur in the histone tails. The research underlying this thesis focused on different aspects of post-translational modifications during aging, differentiation, and progression of the cell cycle, and also on expression of linker histone variants and linker histone-chromatin interactions in a variety of cells and tissues. The present results are the first to show that H4 can be trimethylated at lysine 20 in mammalian cells. The trimethylated H4K20 was found in rat kidney and liver at levels that rose with increasing age of the nimals, and it was also detected in trace amounts in human cell lines. Furthermore, in differentiating MEL cells, trimethylated H4K20 was localized to heterochromatin, and levels of trimethylated H4K20 increased during the course of cell differentiation and were correlated with the increasing compaction of the chromatin. The chromatin of terminally differentiated chicken and frog erythrocytes is highly condensed, and the linker histone variants it contains vary between the two species. Cytofluorometric analyses revealed that the linker histones in the chicken erythrocytes exhibited higher affinity for chromatin than did those in the frog erythrocytes. Characterization of the H1° in frog erythrocytes proved it to be the H1°-2 subvariant. Other experiments demonstrated that normal human B lymphocytes expressed the linker histone variants H1.2, H1.3, H1.4, and H1.5, and that B cells from patients with B-CLL expressed the same variants although in different amounts. The most striking dissimilarity was that amounts of H1.3 in the cells were decreased or undetectable in some samples. Sequencing did not discern any defects in the H1.3 gene, and thus the absence of H1.3 is probably regulated at the post-translational level. It was also observed that the levels of linker histone phosphorylation in EBV-transformed B lymphocytes were already increased in the G1 phase of the cell cycle, which is earlier than previously thought. This increase in phosphorylation is probably responsible for the lower affinity of linker histones for chromatin in EBV-transformed cells in the G1 phase of the cell cycle.

The calcitonin gene family of peptides consists of calcitonin (CT), two calcitonin gene related peptides (α-CGRP, β-CGRP), adrenomedullin (ADM), amylin (AMY), three calcitonin receptor activating peptides (CRSP1-3) and intermedin/adrenomedullin2 (IMD). These peptides bind to one of two G protein -coupled receptors, the calcitonin receptor (CTR) or the calcitonin receptor-like receptor (CRLR). The receptor specificity to different ligands is dependent on the formation of a complex with one of three receptor activity-modifying proteins (RAMP1-3). The aim of this study was to analyse effects of this family of peptides on the formation of osteoclasts and bone resorption, and the expression of the receptor components in bone cells. CT inhibited the formation of multinucleated osteoclasts in spleen cell cultures and in bone marrow macrophage cultures (BMM) without affecting a number of genes important for osteoclast differentiation, activity or fusion of osteoclast progenitor cells. All members of the CT family, except ADM, inhibited osteoclastogenesis in BMM. The inhibitory effect seemed to involve activation of both protein kinase A and the exchange protein directly activated by cyclic AMP (Epac) signalling. BMM expressed the CRLR, RAMP1-3 and the receptor component protein (RCP). AMY, ADM, CGRP and IMD, but not CRSP and CT, increased cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels in these cells, indicating the presence of functional receptors. Stimulation of BMM with RANKL gradually increased the levels of CTR mRNA as well as the capacity of the cells to respond to the stimulation by CRSP and CT. The response to stimulation of ADM was, on the contrary, decreased by RANKL. Stimulation of RANKL caused a transiently enhanced CRLR mRNA expression and transiently decreased RAMP1, but did not affect RAMP2, RAMP3, or RCP mRNA. However, RANKL did not affect protein levels of CRLR or RAMP1-3. CT, CGRP, AMY, ADM, IMD and CRSP all down regulated the CTR mRNA, but none of the peptides caused any effects on the expression of CRLR or any of the RAMPs. All members of the CT family, except ADM, rapidly and transiently, inhibited bone resorption in mouse calvarial bones. CT, CGRP, AMY and CRSP also significantly stimulated cAMP formation in the calvaria. cAMP analogues specifically stimulating the PKA or the Epac pathways did not cause inhibition of bone resorption in the calvaria. An unspecific cAMP analogue, stimulating both pathways did, however, cause inhibition. Analyses of an osteoblastic cell line, MC3T3-E1, showed that these cells express the mRNA for CRLR and all three RAMP proteins. In conclusion, the results of this thesis show that all peptides in CT family of peptides, except ADM, inhibit of bone resorption and osteoclast formation and that these effects involve the adenylate cyclase-cAMP pathway. Furthermore, expressions of CRLR and RAMP1-3 mRNA have been demonstrated on osteoclasts, as well as in an osteoblastic cell line.

Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) is a member of a large family of cytokines that regulate many crucial events in cells, including proliferation, differentiation, migration and apoptosis. Deregulated TGF-β signaling is associated with various forms of cancers and developmental disorders. TGF-β binds to a receptor complex at the surface of cells and activates a signaling cascade involving specific intracellular signaling proteins, known as Smads. Following receptor activation, the Smads are activated by phosphorylation and translocate to the nucleus, where they activate or repress the expression of specific genes. Posttranslational modifications regulate the function of proteins in a number of ways, including their activity, stability, localization, and/or interactions with other proteins. These modifications are important to modulate the strength and specificity of cellular signal transduction. Smad7, an important negative modulator of TGF-β signaling, has been shown to be acetylated by the acetyltransferase p300. My aim was to further explore the involvement of protein acetylation in TGF-β-dependent signaling. We could show that the acetylation of Smad7 is a reversible process. Interestingly, earlier work had shown that the acetylation of Smad7 prevented its degradation. In agreement with this observation, we found that the ubiquitylation and degradation of Smad7 was increased following cotransfection with HDAC1, a protein deacetylase. Based on our observations, we propose a model in which the stability of Smad7 is controlled by the balance between its acetylation, deacetylation and ubiquitylation. In a separate study, we found that also Smad2 and Smad3 are acetylated by p300/CBP and P/CAF upon TGF-β stimulation. Moreover, we found that the acetylation of the short isoform of Smad2 promoted its DNA binding activity, resulting in an increased transcriptional activity. Our results suggest that the increased DNA binding in response to acetylation is due to a conformational change in Smad2.

Telomeres are repetitive TTAGGG structures ending each chromosome and thereby protecting its integrity. Due to the end-replication problem, telomeres shorten with each cell division. When reaching a critical telomere length (TL), the cells stop dividing and enter replicative senescence. It has been speculated that telomeres might regulate lifespan at the organism level but this hypothesis is controversial. However, telomeres in human blood cells do shorten with increasing age. Telomerase is an enzyme capable of lengthen telomeres. It consists of a catalytic subunit, hTERT, and a RNA template, hTR. Telomerase is active in germ cells, stem cells, activated lymphocytes and highly proliferating epithelial cells while no activity is found in other somatic cells. One step in order to produce a tumour mass is that cancer cells need to have a limitless replicative potential and this can be achieved by activating telomerase. Most tumour cells express telomerase activity and hence, the enzyme is an interesting target for cancer therapy. Telomere length is in part inherited. Two separate family cohorts were investigated to elucidate the inheritance pattern and a strong paternal inheritance was observed. In the larger, multifamily cohort spanning up to four generations, a weak correlation between the TL of the mother and the child was also found, as well as a significant correlation between grandparent-grandchild pairs. Interestingly, the heritable impact diminished with increasing age, indicating than non-heritable factors might influence TL during life. A functional T to C transition polymorphism in the hTERT promoter was previously reported, showing that the -1327C/C genotype was correlated with shorter TL compared to the alternative genotypes in healthy individuals and in coronary artery disease patients. When investigating 226 myocardial infarction patients and 444 controls separately, no differences were observed regarding mean TL or increased attrition rate between the different genotypes. TL in blood cells is shown to be altered in patients with certain types of solid tumours. In our breast cancer cohort, TL was a strong prognostic marker. Short telomeres were associated with increased survival, especially in young patients and in those with advanced tumours. It has been speculated that cancer patients might have a faster telomere attrition rate than controls but this has not been experimentally proven. Two blood samples from the same individual taken with 9-11 years interval was investigated. Some were diagnosed with a malignancy after the second blood draw. When comparing patients with controls, telomere attrition rate was not correlated to future tumour development. About one third of the individuals elongated their telomeres over a decade and the individual telomere attrition rate was telomere length dependent, showing an inverse correlation to TL at a highly significant level. This strongly suggests that the TL maintenance mechanism shown to provide protection for short telomeres in vitro is important also in human cells in vivo.