No Brasil Phytophthora nicotianae é um dos principais agentes causadores da podridão do pé e de raízes e radicelas em citros. As doenças provocadas pelo gênero ocasionam danos elevados à produção agrícola e o uso de porta-enxertos resistentes é medida importante para controle. Nesse trabalho objetivou-se estudar aspectos relacionados à histologia e bioquímica da interação entre P. nicotianae e porta-enxerto de tangerineira Sunki (suscetível) e citrumeleiro Swingle (resistente). Para tal, raízes de plântulas desses genótipos com dois, três ou seis meses foram inoculadas com suspensão de 105 zoósporos/mL de P. nicotianae e mantidas a 25°C. As análises foram realizadas em microscópio de luz (ML) e confocal (MC), em cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (CLAE), em cromatógrafo a gás (CG) e em microscópio eletrônico de varredura (MEV). Em ML, as secções de raízes coradas com azul de toluidina um, dois, quatro e seis dias após a inoculação (dai) indicaram diferenças entre os porta-enxertos no modo e na velocidade de colonização do patógeno. O hospedeiro resistente apresentou menor número de hifas nos tecidos e essas se localizaram principalmente nos espaços intercelulares. Em MC, analisou-se a distribuição da elicitina do patógeno em secções de raízes um, dois e quatro dai. A elicitina foi detectada em menor quantidade e mostrou concentração constante em raízes de citrumeleiro Swingle e em quantidade maior e em gradual aumento em raízes tangerineira Sunki. Análises da superfície das raízes em MEV, 1, 2 e 4 horas após a inoculação, revelaram menor número de cistos do patógeno sobre o hospedeiro resistente no tempo de 2 horas. Testes histoquímicos com cloreto de zinco iodado e cloreto férrico para a detecção, respectivamente, de lignina e compostos fenólicos, em secções a fresco de raízes dos porta-enxertos um, três e seis dai foram visualizadas em ML e evidenciaram ausência de alteração nos níveis desses compostos entre raízes inoculadas e não inoculadas. A análise em CLAE, três dai, demonstrou que ambos os porta-enxertos, possuem compostos fenólicos em suas raízes. Entretanto, não houve diferença qualitativa e quantitativa destes compostos em plantas de um mesmo genótipo não inoculado e inoculado com P. nicotianae. Porém, diferenças quantitativas foram observadas entre ambos os genótipos. Em citrumeleiro Swingle encontrou-se menor quantidade de equivalentes em ácido clorogênico e apigenina e maior quantidade de equivalentes em rutina, quando comparado à tangerineira Sunki. A produção de etileno dos genótipos, analisada em CG, foi avaliada durante dez dai. O hospedeiro suscetível inoculado apresentou maior produção do gás comparado ao controle, do primeiro ao sexto dia. O hospedeiro resistente inoculado e não inoculado não apresentaram diferenças na produção do gás durante o ensaio. Esses resultados indicam diferenças na interação entre P. nicotianae e plântulas de citrumeleiro Swingle e tangerineira Sunki. Todavia, não esclarecem os mecanismos pelos quais essas diferenças ocorrem. Tais resultados fornecem subsídios para estudos sobre os mecanismos envolvidos na resistência de genótipos de citros à P. nicotianae. / In Brazil Phytophthora nicotianae is one of the main causal agents of foot and root rot in citrus. Diseases caused by this genus are responsible for significant losses in agricultural production and the use of resistant rootstocks is an important control procedure. This work aimed to study aspects related to histology and biochemistry of the interaction between P. nicotianae and Swingle citrumelo (resistant) and Sunki tangerine (susceptible) rootstocks. For this purpose, roots of two, three or six months old seedlings of both genotypes were inoculated with a suspension of 105 zoospores/mL of P. nicotianae and kept at 25°C. Analyses were performed with light (LM) and confocal (CM) microscope, with high performance liquid chromatograph (HPLC), with gas chromatograph (GC) and, with scanning electron microscope (SEM). In LM, root sections stained with toluidine blue one, two, four and six days after inoculation (dai) indicated differences in the mode and speed of colonization of the pathogen between the rootstocks. The resistant host showed a lower number of hyphae inside its tissue, mainly in the intercellular spaces. In CM, the pathogen elicitin distribution was analyzed in root sections one, two and four dai. The elicitin amount was lower and apparently stable in Swingle citrumelo root and it was higher and increasing gradually in Sunki tangerine roots. Roots surface analysis by SEM, 1, 2 and 4 hours after inoculation, indicated fewer pathogen cysts on resistant host at 2 hours. Histochemical tests in fresh root sections with iodized zinc chloride and ferric chloride for detection, respectively, of lignin and phenolic compounds were seen one, three and six dai in LM. The results showed no change in levels of these compounds in roots of inoculated and uninoculated rootstocks. HPLC root analysis, three dai, revealed that both rootstocks, inoculated and uninoculated, had phenolic compounds. However, there was no qualitative and quantitative difference in phenolic compounds between inoculated and uninoculated plants of the same genotype. Quantitative differences were observed between both hosts. There was lower concentration of apigenin and chlorogenic acid equivalents and higher concentration of rutin equivalents in Swingle citrumelo as compared to Sunki tangerine. Production of ethylene by the genotypes was analyzed in GC during 10 dai. The susceptible host, when inoculated, showed higher ethylene production compared to control from the first to the sixth day. The resistant host, inoculated or not, showed no difference in ethylene production during the test. These results indicate differences in the interaction between P. nicotianae and seedlings of Swingle citrumelo and Sunki tangerine. Nevertheless, they do not clarify the mechanisms through which these differences occur. These results indicate some points where further studies should concentrate on the resistance mechanisms of citrus genotypes against P. nicotianae.

As relações hídricas e fisiológicas em plantas de lima ácida ‘Tahiti’ sob estresse hídrico foram estudadas tendo-se como principais objetivos: (a) verificar a sazonalidade da evapotranspiração e o coeficiente de cultivo com o uso de lisímetro de pesagem baseado em célula de carga eletrônica, (b) determinar o limite crítico da água disponível em função da evapotranspiração, trocas gasosas e potencial de água na folha durante um período de estresse hídrico e (c) avaliar o efeito da supressão da irrigação durante diferentes períodos fenológicos sobre o desenvolvimento vegetativo, na produtividade e qualidade do fruto. Este experimento foi conduzido na Fazenda Areão do Departamento de Engenharia Rural da ESALQ/USP, em Piracicaba, SP, em um pomar de 1 hectare no espaçamento de 7 X 4 m com lima ácida ‘Tahiti’ (Citrus latifolia Tanaka) enxertadas em citrumelo ‘Swingle’ [Poncirus trifoliata (L.) Raf. x C. paradisi Macf.] irrigadas por gotejamento. Para as medidas fisiológicas, foram utilizados equipamentos portáteis como a câmara de pressão e analisador de gases por infravermelho além de medidas do desenvolvimento vegetativo e produtivo. O monitoramento da água solo foi realizado por tensiômetros e sondas de TDR. A Evapotranspiração de Referência foi obtida com uma estação agrometeorológica automatizada presente na área. Verificou-se um efeito sazonal na evapotranspiração, com uma redução superior a 50% no período verãoinverno, possibilitando a economia da irrigação no período. A evapotranspiração, trocas gasosas e potencial da água na folha ao amanhecer foram diminuídos pelo esgotamento de 40% da água disponível do solo por ocasião do final do período de inverno. A supressão da irrigação no período de Setembro a Março diminuiu o potencial matricial do solo e promoveu um estresse leve nas plantas não-irrigadas, não se observando efeitos negativos no desenvolvimento vegetativo, produtivo e na qualidade dos frutos formados. Recomenda-se o potencial da água no folha ao amanhecer para manejo da irrigação, mantendo-o maior que -0,6 MPa, para evitar o estresse hídrico em plantas de limeira ácida ‘Tahiti’. / Water and physiologic relations in acid lime trees under water stress were studied with the following purposes: (a) to verify the seasonal effect of evapotranspiration and the crop coefficient in non-stressed trees by weighing lysimeter; (b) to determine the critical soil water depletion for evapotranspiration, gas exchange as well as the leaf water potential during a stage of growing of the trees and (c) to determine the effect of the irrigation suppression on growth, yield and fruit quality during different phenological periods. The experiment was carried out an experimental farm at College of Agriculture Luiz de Queiroz (ESALQ), in Piracicaba and performed from 2003 to 2005 in a 1 hectare orchard planted with ‘Tahiti’ (Citrus latifolia Tanaka) grafted on ‘Swingle’ [Poncirus trifoliata (L.) Raf. x C. paradisi Macf. ] rootstock. The trees were spaced 7 x 4 m apart and drip-irrigated. For physiologic measurements were used portable equipments such as a pressure chamber and an infrared gas analyzer as well measurements of vegetative and productive growth. The soil water status was monitored by tensiometers and TDR probes. The reference evapotranspiration was obtained by an automatic weather station presented on the area. There was a seasonal effect on evapotranspiration with a reduction higher than 50% forward to summer-winter, being able to water savings in the period. The evapotranspiration, gas exchange and leaf water potential at predawn were decreased when the soil water available was depleted by 40% in the end of winter. The irrigation suppression from September and March decreased the soil matric potential and promoted a light stress level in non-irrigated trees, but without negative effects on vegetative, productive and fruit quality. We recommend the leaf water potential at predawn for irrigation scheduling, keeping higher than -0.6 MPa for avoid water stress in acid lime trees.

Os agroecossistemas consistem em complexas relações tróficas entre plantas, herbívoros, e seus inimigos naturais. Sabe-se que a maioria das plantas é capaz de produzir compostos voláteis, utilizados como sinais químicos por diferentes grupos de insetos. Esses voláteis podem ser produzidos de forma constitutiva em plantas sadias, ou seja, sem indução. Por outro lado, a produção de voláteis induzidos se dá a partir do contato de secreções liberadas pelo fitófago com injurias ocasionadas pela alimentação ou oviposição no tecido vegetal. Para os fitófagos esses voláteis podem sinalizar a presença da planta hospedeira, bem como a presença de coespecíficos e do parceiro sexual. Já para os inimigos naturais, predadores e parasitóides, os voláteis induzidos podem sinalizar a presença do inseto fitófago (presa/ hospedeiro) na planta. Nesse contexto as respostas comportamentais de Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), aos voláteis de plantas de murta, Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack (Rutaceae), infestadas ou não por coespecíficos, foram estudadas. Também foram investigadas as respostas dos psilídeos aos voláteis de plantas de Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck (Rutaceae) infectadas por bactérias causadoras do Huanglongbing ou HLB, uma das mais sérias doenças dos citros. Nos bioensaios visando compostos repelentes a D. citri, foram testados os voláteis de plantas de goiaba, Psidium guajava L.(Myrtaceae) e sua interferência na localização de plantas de Citrus limonia (L.) Osbeck (Rutaceae) pelos psilídeos. As respostas comportamentais foram mensuradas em olfatômetro Y e de quatro vias. Antes de estabelecer os bioensaios de olfatometria foram realizados estudos do comportamento sexual de D. citri. Os resultados obtidos evidenciaram que o início da atividade sexual de D. citri ocorreu entre o segundo e terceiro dia após a emergência, e que os psilídeos foram mais ativos durante a fotofase. Quanto às influências dos voláteis de plantas, machos e fêmeas de D. citri responderam diferentemente aos mesmos estímulos olfativos. Assim, os machos foram atraídos apenas aos odores associados às fêmeas. Já as fêmeas, foram atraídas aos odores das plantas, porém, evitando os odores associados aos machos, inclusive de plantas previamente infestadas por estes. Verificou-se também, que os adultos de D. citri distinguiram os voláteis de citros com HLB dos voláteis de plantas saudáveis. Sendo assim, ficou nítida a atratividade dos voláteis de plantas infectadas, tanto aos psilídeos machos quanto às fêmeas. Na busca por compostos repelentes, também foi possível demonstrar que os voláteis de P. guajava não somente dificultou à localização de plantas de C. limonia por D. citri, como também repeliram os psilídeos. As descobertas aqui apresentadas poderão auxiliar a elaboração de novas táticas para o manejo comportamental de D. citri. / The agro-ecosystems consist of complex trophic relationships between plants, herbivores and their natural enemies. It is known that the majority of plants can produce volatiles compounds used as chemical signals by different groups of insects. These compounds can be produced constitutively in healthy plants, i.e., without induction. In other hand, the production of induced volatiles occurs from the contact of secretions released by phytophagous with injuries caused by feeding or oviposition in plant tissue. For phytophagous, these volatile compounds may signal the presence of the host plant, as well as the presence of conspecifics and the sexual partner. Although, natural enemies, predators and parasitoids, the induced volatiles can signal the presence of phytophagous insects (prey / host) in the plant. In this context, the behavioral responses of Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) to plant volatiles of jasmine, Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack (Rutaceae) infested or not by conspecifics, were studied. It was also investigated the responses of psyllids to volatiles of Citrus sinensis infected by bacteria that cause the huanglongbing or HLB, one of the most serious diseases of citrus. Given the studies that aim to identify repellent compounds to D. citri, it was tested plant volatiles of guava, Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae) and their impact on plant location of Citrus limonia (L.) Osbeck (Rutaceae) by psyllids. Behavioral responses were measured by Y-tube and four-way olfactometers. Before establishing the olfactometry assays, studies of D. citri sexual behavior were performed. The obtained results showed that the beginning of D. citri sexual activities occurred between the second and third days after emergence, and the psyllids were more active during the photophase. In regard to the effects of plant volatiles, males and females of D. citri differently responded to the same olfactory stimuli. Thus, males were attracted only to odors associated with females. Females were attracted to plant odors, although they avoided odors associated with males, including plants previously infested by them. It was also verified that D. citri adults distinguished volatiles citrus with HLB from volatiles released by healthy plants. Given that, it was clear that volatiles from infected plants were attractive to both males and females psyllids. In search of repellent compounds, also was possible demonstrated that P. guajava volatiles not only hindered the location of plants of C. limonia by D. citri, but also provided repellent effect to psyllids. The findings presented here may help the development of new tactics for the behavioral management of D. citri.

O Brasil é líder absoluto no comércio internacional de suco de laranja concentrado congelado participando com 82% do volume comercializado no mundo. Guignardia citricarpa é um fungo Ascomiceto agente causal da Mancha Preta dos Citros (MPC), uma doença importante no contexto da Citricultura, causando lesões negras em frutos tornando-os impróprios para a exportação, já que não são aceitos na União Européia pois o patógeno é classificado como quarentenário. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo principal estabeler a metodologia de transformação genética de G. citricarpa para futuramente auxiliar no entendimento dos mecanismos de patogenicidade desta espécie, visando diminuir perdas na citricultura brasileira devido à MPC. Além disso, foi realizada uma análise do gene da enzima endopoligalacturonase, a qual está associada à capacidade de patógenos em colonizar plantas. Para elucidar esse fenômeno, foi realizada a busca de genes relacionados à patogenicidade em outros fungos fitopatogênicos previamente descritos e confirmados participarem no processo de doenças em diversas plantas. Considerando que esses genes possuem uma região conservada para esse fim, após o alinhamento dessas sequências foram construídos primers e o gene de endopoligalacturonase foi identificado no gênero Guignardia sp. Outra espécie pertencente a esse gênero é G. mangiferae, conhecida como endófito de citros, ou seja, coloniza os tecidos internos da planta hospedeira sem causar dano. Em análises enzimáticas foi observado que a quantidade de endopoligalacturonase produzida pela espécie patogênica é superior à da espécie endofítica, mostrando que essa enzima pode participar do processo de patogenicidade de G. citricarpa. Estudos para comprovar a participação de genes nos mecanismos de patogenicidade em diversas espécies utilizando reconhecimento de genes e genômica funcional, expressão e knockout de genes estão sendo realizados, permitindo uma visão geral da organização genômica do sistema patogênico. Pensando nisso, esse trabalho descreve pela primeira vez a metodologia de transformação genética de G. citricarpa via micélio e a obtenção de transformantes expressando a proteína verde fluorescente (GFP). Micélios do fungo foram transformados pelo sistema via Agrobacterium tumefaciens com o plasmídeo pFAT-gfp, contendo os genes de resistência à higromicina B (hgr) e da GFP. A otimização do protocolo de agrotransformação foi realizada a partir do teste de diferentes condições como: tipo de membrana, concentração de agente indutor e tempo de cocultivo. A melhor condição incluiu a utilização de membrana de éster de celulose; 200 PM de AS e 96 horas de co-cultivo. Os transformantes apresentaram alta estabilidade mitótica (82%) e tiveram a inserção do gene hgr confirmada por PCR e do gfp observada em microscopia óptica de epifluorescência. Além disso, foi acompanhado o desenvolvimento do fungo inoculado em frutos, mostrando a interação planta-patógeno. O estabelecimento do sistema de transformação por Agrobacterium para G. citricarpa possibilita o uso dessa ferramenta para estudos de mutagênese insercional e interrupção gênica visando a identificação de genes importantes, como os envolvidos com os mecanismos de patogenicidade utilizados por esse fungo. / Brazil is the world leader in the international trade of frozen orange juice concentrate, taking part with around 82% of the traded volume. Guignardia citricarpa (anamorph Phyllosticta citricarpa) is a fungal pathogen of citrus plants, being described as the causal agent of citrus black spot (CBS), one of the most important fungal diseases of citrus worldwide. Its symptoms are black lesions on fruit, making them unsuitable for the international fresh market, since they are included in the quarantine list of the European Plant Protection Organization (EPPO). Moreover, when the disease is severe it may cause extensive premature fruit drop that reduces yields of fruit for processing. Taking this into consideration, the current work aimed to improve the understanding on the pathogenic mechanisms of this fungus. Firstly, in an attempt to elucidate this phenomenon, it was performed a search for pathogenicity genes previously reported to some pathogenic fungi and confirmed to participate in the process of infection in many plants , especially endopolygalacturonase. Primers were designed using the conserved regions of the genes and allowed the identification of the Guignardia spp. endopolygalacturonase gene for the first time. This enzyme has been described as playing important role in the process of fungal diseases in plants. In the present work, enzymatic analysis showed that the pathogen G. citricarpa produced significantly greater amounts of endopolygalacturonase when compared to G. mangiferae, a closely related fungus described as a citrus endophyte. This result suggests that this enzyme may participate in the process of pathogenicity, characteristic of the pathogenic species. Genetic transformation methods have been used to prove the involvement of genes in pathogenic mechanisms, however, a suitable methodology for G. citricarpa has not been described yet. In this way, this study describes for the first time a methodology for genetic transformation of G. citricarpa via mycelia and the successful generation of transformants expressing the green fluorescent protein (GFP) and resistant to the hygromycin B antibiotic. Mycelia of the fungus were genetically transformed via Agrobacterium tumefaciens hosting the plasmid pFAT-gfp, which carries the genes for resistance to hygromycin B (hph) and for GFP (gfp). The protocol was optimized through different test conditions (type of membrane, concentration of the inducing agent acetosyringone and duration of the co-cultivation period). The higher transformation efficiencies were observed using cellulose ester membrane, 200 PM of acetosyringone and 96 hours of cocultivation. The transformants showed high mitotic stability (82%) and the insertion of the T-DNA was confirmed by PCR and GFP expression through epifluorescence microscopy observation. Moreover, it was observed the development of the fungus in inoculated oranges, showing the plant-pathogen interaction observed by epifluorescense microscopy. The establishment of the Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system for G. citricarpa represents an important step on the search for unveiling important genes of this fungus, such as those involved in the pathogenic mechanisms.

Introduction: Cough is the commonest reason for which medical advice is sought. In assessment of chronic cough and in developing anti-tussive medications, inhalational cough challenges with capsaicin and citric acid are commonly employed. However the ability of these inhalational cough challenges to distinguish health and disease is not clear and it is not known which end point is best in making such assessments. Methods: Subjects belonging to five different categories (healthy volunteers, subjects with COPD, asthma, healthy current smokers and chronic cough) were compared with each another by using the standard cough challenges employing Capsaicin and Citric acid and also by using newer inhalational cough challenge agents such as prostaglandin E2 and bradykinin. In addition adaptation to repeated inhalations of tussive agents was also assessed. The relationship between the cough reflex sensitivity as gauged by using inhalational cough challenge tests and objective cough recording was explored in all five groups. Finally the change in C5 in Capsaicin evoked cough by using a substance to block TRPV1 channel and its effect on objective cough recording was assessed in subjects with chronic cough. Results: Different tussive agents have different abilities to distinguish between different diagnostic categories and a combination of inhalational cough challenge tests have a better accuracy of predicting diagnostic groups as compared to one on its own. There are significant differences in the rates of adaptation to repeated inhalations of PGE2 and there is a significant reduction in cough response over period of time in all disease groups. Using the TRPV1 antagonist resulted in a modest increase in the Log C5 concentration of capsaicin but this was not matched by a change in objective cough recording or CQLQ scores. Conclusions: The different abilities of tussive agents to distinguish between different diagnostic categories suggest that the information conveyed by the one inhalational cough challenge test is different from that by another test. The choice of the inhalational cough challenge test should therefore depend on which groups are included in the study. There was no significant difference in the rate of adaptation to prolonged challenge with citric acid or capsaicin and no significant correlation of the magnitude of adaptation with objective cough recording suggesting that this is unlikely to be responsible for the increased cough rates seen in diseases such as chronic cough, COPD or asthma. The TRPV1 antagonist did not result in a significant change in objective cough recording or CQLQ scores. The change in C5 with the TRPV1 antagonist was however modest and this may be reason for this study failing to show a relationship between these different measures.

In this work synthesis of structure cobaltites based on Ca-Co-O system is discussed. As major way of synthesis was chosen citric acid method. The document is devided into theoretical and experimental part and also into discussion of observed results. Main focus of literary research is general utilization and function of thermoelectric materials, related thermoeletric effects according to structural defects in crystals. Also topic of cobaltite ceramics is described. Due to the fact that calcium-cobalt oxides are conductive, their use is point of interest in high-temperature and energy applications. During experiments differential thermal and thermogravimetric analysis (TG-DTA), X-Ray diffraction, heat microscopy and scanning electron microscopy were used.

<p>Transport of gasses and liquids through polymers and composites is an important factor to be considered when designing a material for structure and packaging applications. For structural engineering applications, more focus has been given to the transportation of water, vapor and organic liquids rather than gases as diffusion of these liquids into the polymers and polymer-based composites can significantly lower service life. In addition, much attention has been given to the leaching of unreacted reactant molecules, solvents, additives, degradation products from the polymers and composites to the atmosphere (water, soil etc.). We studied the transport of volatile organic compounds and water in cured-in-place-pipe (CIPP) (a representative of FRPC) and gas permeability of highly engineered cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) films.</p> <p>Cured-in-place-pipe (CIPP) is a popular technology which uses fiber reinforced polymer composite to repair sanitary sewer, stormwater, and drinking water pipe. The liner is installed in the field and exposed to flowing water immediately after installation (curing of the liner) is done. Curing conditions dictate liner properties as undercured liners can contain unreacted styrene monomers, additives, degradation products. These agents can leach out and enter the environment (soil, water, air). The objective of this work was to investigate the curing behavior, volatile content, thermal stability of steam-cured and UV-cured CIPP liners collected from Indiana and New York installation sites. The liner specimens were also exposed to water and other aggressive environmental conditions (saltwater, concrete pore solution at 50 °C) to explore the leaching of unreacted styrene and other organic chemicals from the liners. The influence of transportation of water, salt solution and pore solution through liners on mechanical and thermo-mechanical properties was also examined to study the durability of the liners. Study suggested that the durability of the liners depends on the curing condition and exposed environment conditions.</p> <p>The function of polymer packaging materials is mainly to inhibit gas and moisture permeation through the films. Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) have drawn growing interest for the packaging due to their non-toxicity, abundance in nature, biodegradability and high barrier properties. The objective of this work was to corelate the alignment of CNC with free volume and barrier performance of the film. Furthermore, citric acid (CA) was added to the CNC suspensions with varying quantity to explore the effect of CA on coating quality and barrier performance of CNC coated polypropylene (PP) film. Study revealed that CA addition in CNC suspension can enhance the hydrophobicity and gas barrier performance of coated PP films while retaining the high optical transparency. </p>

This thesis is focused on carbide ceramics synthesis, more specifically on the synthesis of a Ti2AlC MAX Phase carbide using solution chemistry rather than powder metallurgy. Chloride and nitrate precursors have been used as a source of metals and citric acid as a source of carbon for carbothermal reduction and as a complexing agent. A new route of precursor synthesis has been developed based on peroxo-titanic acid, which helps retain aluminium. The syntheses were performed using the SPS facility to ensure high heating rates. Al4C3 and TiC carbides and their mixtures were prepared successfully. However, the Ti2AlC phase was not synthesized under used conditions. The phase composition, structure and grain sizes of the samples were investigated by powder X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence and electron microscopy. The contents of carbon in the precursors were determined by thermogravimetric analysis.

Eine der für die biotechnologische Nutzung interessanten Eigenschaften der Hefe Yarrowia (Y.) lipolytica ist ihr Vermögen, unter bestimmten Kultivierungsbedingungen große Mengen an organischen Säuren, darunter auch Citronensäure (CS), ins extrazelluläre Medium zu sekretieren. Aufgrund ihrer Apathogenität, ihres breiten Substratspektrums und ihrer guten molekulargenetischen und verfahrenstechnischen Handhabbarkeit, stellt sie einen idealen Mikroorganismus zur biotechnologischen Gewinnung von Citronensäure dar. Bei der durch eine Stickstofflimitation ausgelösten Überproduktion von CS mit Y. lipolytica kommt es parallel auch zur Ausscheidung von Isocitronensäure (ICS), deren Anteil am Gesamtsäureprodukt in Abhängigkeit von der C-Quelle in Wildtypstämmen zwischen 10 % (Glucose, Saccharose, Glycerol) und 40-55 % (Pflanzenöle, Alkan) liegt. In der Literatur beschriebene Mutantenstämme von Y. lipolytica besitzen ein von Wildtypstämmen abweichendes Produktmuster und können sowohl weniger (2-5 % auf Glucose, 5-10 % Alkan und Pflanzenöl) als auch mehr ICS (15-35 % Glu¬cose, 65-75 % Alkan, Ethanol bzw. Pflanzenöl) sekretieren. Die gezielte Überexpression des für die Isocitratlyase codierenden Gens ICL1 durch die Erhöhung der Kopiezahl führte zu einer drastischen Erhöhung der Enzymaktivität in den entsprechenden ICL1 multicopy Transformanden (10-15fach gegenüber Wildtyp) aufgrund des Gen-Dosis-Effektes. Auf den getesteten hydrophilen C-Quellen Glucose, Glycerol und Saccharose verringerte sich der ICS-Anteil von durchschnittlich 10-12 % auf 3-5 %, auf den hydrophoben C-Quellen Hexadecan und Sonnenblumenöl sogar von durchschnittlich 40-55 % auf Werte um 5-10 %. Im Ergebnis dieser Untersuchungen entstand ein Patent (DE10333144A1), welches ein Verfahren zur Gewinnung von CS mit einer genetisch veränderten Hefe Y. lipolytica beschreibt. Die Zerstörung des Leserahmens des ICL1 Gens in Mutantenstämmen bewirkte das Ausbleiben der Synthese einer funktionell aktiven Isocitratlyase, was den Verlust der Fähigkeit zur Verwertung gluconeogenetischer C-Quellen wie Ethanol, Alkan und Pflanzenölen zur Folge hatte. Auf Glucose bzw. Glycerol zeigten diese Mutantenstämme im Vergleich zum Wildtypstamm jedoch nur eine geringe Erhöhung des ICS-Anteils um durchschnittlich 2-5 Prozentpunkte. Die Zerstörung des Leserahmens des IDP2 Gens, codierend für die NADP-abhängigen Isocitratdehydrogenase, führte zur Glutamat-Auxotrophie des entsprechenden Mutantenstammes auf allen getesteten C-Quellen. In der Produktbildung zeigte diese Mutante im Vergleich zum Wildtypstamm eine Verringerung des ICS-Anteils um durchschnittlich 2-4 Prozentpunkte. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass Saccharose ein geeignetes Substrat zur Gewinnung von CS mit rekombinanten Stämmen von Y. lipolytica darstellt, die das für die Invertase codierende SUC2 Gens aus Saccharomyces cerevisiae exprimieren. Natürlicherweise kann Y. lipolytica diesen Zucker aufgrund des Fehlens des Enzyms Invertase nicht verwerten. Im Schüttelkolben wurden aus 100 g/l Saccharose unter nicht optimierten Bedingungen bereits 56 g/l CS+ICS gewonnen. Nach der Optimierung durch die Reduktion des für die Invertaseexpression durch pXPR2 notwendigen Peptonanteils von 1,7 auf 0,4 g/l erhöhte sich die Produktkonzentration auf 77 g/l. Die Übertragung des Produktionsprozesses in den Bioreaktor hatte die Verdopplung der Produktbildungsraten (RZA von 0,4 auf 0,85 g/l*h, r von 46 auf 89 mg/g*h) zur Folge, bedingt durch die Aufhebung der Sauerstofflimitation. Die Steigerung der Invertaseaktivität, die sich unter Bioreaktorbedingungen als ein Limi¬tationsfaktor her¬ausstellte, konnte durch die Anhebung des pH-Wertes von 5,0 auf 6,0 bzw. 6,8 er¬reicht werden. Dadurch konnten die Produktbildungsrate RZA um bis zu 80 % von 0,42 auf 0,76 g/l*h, die biomassespezifische Produktbildungsge¬schwin¬digkeit r um bis zu 70 % von 0,06 auf 0,1 g/g*h und die Ausbeute um bis zu 64 % von 0,5 auf 0,82 g/g gesteigert werden. Einen weiteren Limitationsfaktor für den CS-Bildungsprozess aus Saccharose stellt bei ausreichender Invertaseexpression offenbar die Aufnahme von Glucose und Fructose dar. Die Hefe Y. lipolytica zeigte höchste Produktbildungsraten aus Pflanzenölen, wie Sonnenblumen- oder Rapsöl, als nachwachsende Rohstoffe. Um zu prüfen, ob die Produktivität der CS-Bildung aus Pflanzenölen mit Y. lipolytica gesteigert werden kann, sollte die Triglyceridverwertung durch die Erhöhung der extrazellulären Lipaseaktivität verbessert werden. Dazu wurden zum einen Insertionsmutantenstämme, die auf eine erhöhte extrazelluläre Lipaseaktivität im Plattentest hin selektiert wurden, charakterisiert. Zum anderen wurde das für die extrazelluläre Lipase codierende LIP2 Gen in Y. lipolytica überexprimiert. Die erhaltenen LIP2 multicopy Transformanden zeigten eine bis zu 400fach erhöhte Lipaseaktivität im Vergleich zum Wildtypstamm (von 400 U/l auf bis zu 150000 U/l). Eine Verbesserung der Triglyceridverwertung aufgrund der Erhöhung der extrazellulären Lipaseaktivität in den untersuchten Insertionsmutanten und LIP2 multicopy Transformanden wurde nicht festgestellt. Die erhaltenen Daten für die Produktbildungsrate RZA (0,9-1,1 g/l*h), die biomassespezifische Produktbildungsgeschwindigkeit r (0,08-0,14 g/g*h) und die Ausbeuten (1,3-1,5 g/g) waren innerhalb der untersuchten Stämme vergleichbar und ließen keine verbesserte Produktbildung erkennen. Der geschwindigkeitsbestimmende Schritt liegt offenbar nicht bei der Hydrolyse der Triglyceride durch Lipasen, sondern bei der Aufnahme und dem Transport der Fettsäuren und/oder deren Katabolismus.

Mood disorders are serious diseases. Nevertheless, their pathophysiology is not sufficiently clarified. Biological markers that would facilitate the diagnosis or successful prediction of pharmacotherapy are still being sought. The aim of the study was to find out whether mitochondrial functions are affected by antidepressants, mood stabilizers and depression. Our research is based on recent hypotheses of mood disorders, the advanced monoamine hypothesis, the neurotrophic hypothesis, and the mitochondrial dysfunction hypothesis. We assume that impaired function of mitochondria leads to neuronal damage and can be related to the origin of mood disorders. Effects of antidepressants and mood stabilizers on mitochondrial functions can be related to their therapeutic or side effects. In vitro effects of pharmacologically different antidepressants and mood stabilizers on the activities of mitochondrial enzymes were measured in mitochondria isolated from pig brains (in vitro model). Activity of monoamine oxidase (MAO) isoforms was determined radiochemically, activities of other mitochondrial enzymes were measured spectrophotometrically. Overall activity of the system of oxidative phosphorylation was measured electrochemically using high- resolution respirometry. Methods were modified to measure the same...