Background: The success achieved with the South-African Police Service’s generic Personnel Capacity-Building Programmes contributed to a 2003 decision by the National Commissioner that a similar type of intervention should be included in the basic training of SAPS recruits. This led to the development of the Self-Management Programme. This programme is, since July 2004, an integral part of the empowerment of more than 8000 recruits annually and is presented on a bi-annual basis. A comprehensive study into the programme’s short-term and long-term effect and return on investment (ROI) was launched in 2004. This thesis will report on the results achieved with the measurement of the programme’s human relation and health maintenance components. Objectives: The primary aim of the study was to determine the effect of the Self-Management Programme’s human relations and health maintenance modules on the knowledge, attitude and behaviour of SAPS recruits, as well as the programme’s return on investment coefficient. Method: The study utilised an experimental research design, as well as focus groups and triangulation. It involved an average of 520 recruits (400 for the experimental groups and 120 for the control groups) per module. This was supplemented by qualitative research in which 91 recruits participated in various focus groups. The modules and programme was also subjected to a structured and comprehensive return on investment analysis. Results: Through the triangulation of measurements it was ascertained that the human relations and health maintenance modules had a practical significant effect on the recruits’ knowledge, attitude and behaviour and empowered them on both a personal and a professional level. The ROI analysis also showed that the programme was of considerable financial benefit to the SAPS and should remain as an integral part of all new recruits’ training in the future. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Social Work))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

This security study attempts to explain the dynamics of international conflict management of an intrastate conflict, through a combination of three theoretical frameworks. The conflict in Syria is shown to be managed mainly through strategies using coercive diplomacy, and some main contributions within the research field relating to strategies of coercion are used for guidance, to important factors which could affect coercive international conflict management, as well as to additional theories which could enhance the study’s explanatory power through a combined theoretical framework. The two added theoretical frameworks are Power Balancing and a Multidimensional concept of Power. With the aid of analytical tools derived from this combined framework the conflict management is analysed within both a multilateral and unilateral setting, offering some explanation as to why international conflict management (practiced by UNSC multilaterally and USA unilaterally) has shown so little progress in regard to the conflict, as well as why one significant, though limited, result could be achieved regarding the destruction of the Syrian regime’s chemical weapons arsenal.

本研究旨在探討國民小學行政團隊的正向組織行為對團隊衝突管理之影響。本研究應用一個縱觀的研究設計來了解是否團隊正向心理的潛在影響，形成團隊成員之間的正向組織行為，進而影響其團隊衝突的型態及面對團隊衝突管理的方式，以期最終達成團隊良好的績效產出，提供教育人員重視正向組織行為，促進建立學校優質的行政團隊視野。 本研究採用問卷調查法，以桃園縣公立國民小學，共有187 所學校之教師兼行政人員為樣本母群體，採分層隨機抽樣，抽出781位受試者，回收有效問卷566份，所得資料分別以描述性統計、t考驗、單因子變異數分析及迴歸分等統計方法進行資料的分析與處理，以瞭解國民小學行政團隊的正向組織行為對團隊衝突管理之現況、差異情形及其預測力。研究結論如下： 一、桃園縣國民小學行政團隊正向組織行為之知覺現況屬中上程度，以「團隊效能」最高。 二、桃園縣國民小學行政團隊衝突型態以「任務衝突」居多。 三、桃園縣國民小學行政團隊衝突管理模式以「整合」占最多數。 四、年齡、現任職務、行政服務年資、學校歷史、教師兼行政人數等五個背景變項在團隊正向組織行為上有顯著差異，以「41歲以上」、「兼任主任職務者」、「行政服務年資16年以上」與「校齡在10年以下的大型學校」較高。 五、性別、年齡、現任職務等三個背景變項在團隊衝突型態上有顯著差異，「男性」、「兼任主任職務者」較傾向知覺任務衝突型態，「年輕者較年長者」傾向知覺關係衝突型態。 六、性別、年齡、最高學歷、現任職務、行政服務年資、學校歷史、教師兼行政人數等七個背景變項在團隊衝突管理模式上有顯著差異，「男性」、「學歷高者」、「兼任主任」傾向支配模式，「41歲以上」、「兼任主任」、「服務年資16年以上」、「在大型學校者」傾向整合模式或妥協模式，「校齡在10年以下」較傾向逃避模式，「41-50歲」、「兼任主任」且在「校齡10年以下的大型學校」較傾向退讓模式。 七、行政團隊正向組織行為與任務衝突有中度正相關。 八、行政團隊正向組織行為與關係衝突有低度負相關。 九、行政團隊正向組織行為與整合、退讓、妥協等衝突管理模式有中高度的正相關。 十、高任務高關係衝突型態之行政團隊的正向組織行為對五種衝突管理模式具顯著相關及預測力。其中以「團隊效能」對整合、逃避、退讓、妥協管理模式具有顯著正向預測力；「團隊恢復力」對整合、逃避、支配、退讓、妥協五種管理模式有顯著相關及預測力；另「團隊樂觀」對逃避、支配具有顯著負向預測力。 十一、高任務低關係衝突型態之行政團隊的正向組織行為對四種衝突管理模式具顯著相關及預測力。其中以「團隊效能」對整合管理模式具有顯著正向預測力，對逃避管理模式具有顯著負向預測力；「團隊恢復力」對整合、退讓、妥協管理模式有顯著相關及預測力；另「團隊樂觀」對退讓具有顯著正向預測力。 十二、低任務高關係衝突型態之行政團隊的正向組織行為對五種衝突管理模式具顯著相關及預測力。其中以「團隊效能」對整合、退讓、妥協管理模式具有顯著正向預測力；「團隊恢復力」對整合、逃避、妥協管理模式有顯著相關及預測力；另「團隊樂觀」對支配具有顯著負向預測力。 十三、低任務低關係衝突型態之行政團隊的正向組織行為對四種衝突管理模式具顯著相關及預測力。其中以「團隊效能」對整合、逃避、退讓、妥協管理模式具有顯著正向預測力；「團隊恢復力」對整合、退讓、妥協管理模式有顯著相關及預測力；「團隊樂觀」在此衝突型態下對衝突管理模式皆無預測力。 最後依據研究結果與結論，提出具體建議，以作為教育行政機關、行政團隊、以及未來研究的參考。 / The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of Positive Organizational Behavior (POB) on conflict management in elementary school administration teams. This study focus on team level representations of the positive psychological capacities that have met the POB inclusion criteria, and which may have a influence on conflict management, the final to achieve good team performance outputs. A survey research was conducted using a sample of public elementary school administration teams in Taoyuan County Taiwan, excluding 781 teachers from 187 school administration teams were selected by stratified random sampling. 566 valid sample data collected was analyzed and processed with the methods of descriptive statistics, t-test, one-way ANOVA, multiple-regression analysis. The major findings of this study are as follows: 1. POB is above average, “Team Efficacy” ranks the top. 2. “Team task conflict” is the majority type of conflict. 3. “Integrating” is the majority conflict management style. 4. Five demographic variables, including age, position, total serving years, school history, team members amount, show significant differences in POB. Teachers who are older than 41, work as the chief of department, more than 16 total serving years, school history in 10 years and a large school, show higher perception of POB. 5. Three demographic variables, gender, age, position, show significant differences in conflict type. Teachers who are male, work as the chief of department, show higher perception of task conflict. Teachers who are younger than 51, show higher perception of relationship conflict. 6. Seven demographic variables, including gender, age, education, position, total serving years, school history, team members amount, show significant differences in conflict management style. 7. POB is positively related to task conflict. 8. POB is negatively related to relationship conflict. 9. POB is positively related to integrating, obliging and compromising. 10. In high-high combinations of task and relationship conflict, “Team Efficacy” has positive direct effect on integrating, avoiding, obliging and compromising. “Team Resilience” has positive direct effect on integrating, avoiding, dominating, obliging and compromising. “Team Optimism” has negative direct effect on avoiding, dominating. 11. In high-low combinations of task and relationship conflict, “Team Efficacy” has positive direct effect on integrating, and has negative direct effect on avoiding. “Team Resilience” has positive direct effect on integrating, obliging and compromising. “Team Optimism” has positive direct effect on obliging. 12. In low-high combinations of task and relationship conflict, “Team Efficacy” has positive direct effect on integrating, obliging and compromising. “Team Resilience” has positive direct effect on integrating, avoiding and compromising. “Team Optimism” has negative direct effect on dominating. 13. In low-low combinations of task and relationship conflict, “Team Efficacy” has positive direct effect on integrating, avoiding, obliging and compromising. “Team Resilience” has positive direct effect on integrating, obliging and compromising. “Team Optimism” has no effect. Based on the results of the research, suggestions for educational administration authorities, administration teams and future related study are proposed.

Studies of life span development in everyday problem solving suggest two trajectories of change in adulthood: individuals become less effective at solving well-defined instrumental problems but more effective at managing ill-defined interpersonal problems. Two experiments were conducted to examine the ability of young and older adults to effectively manage an interpersonal problem that has a well-defined measure of instrumental success. Participants played an iterated Prisoner s Dilemma game with same-age, computer-simulated strangers (Experiment 1) and friends (Experiment 2). Success was dependent upon one s ability to put aside self-interest and cooperate with a partner. Computer-simulated partners reciprocated the participants decisions 100% of the time or behaved in a more self-interested manner. Young and older adults tendencies to create conflict with the reciprocating partner and their defensive reactions to the selfish partner were examined. Although young adults outperformed older adults when playing the game on their own, they did not carry this performance advantage into the interactive rounds. In fact, despite their success when playing alone, young adults were no more successful than older adults when interacting with others. Young and older adults both cooperated more with friends than with strangers and more with the reciprocating partner than the selfish partner. However, when the participants first interaction was with a selfish stranger, older adults were more cooperative than young adults and consequently accrued more reward. This is consistent with previous research demonstrating that older adults use more passive interpersonal problem solving strategies than young adults, and it also partially supports the prediction that advancing age leads to more effective strategy implementation when solving interpersonal problems.

<p>The dissertation examines three military interventions in Sub-Saharan Africa which took place in the mid and late 1990s in Rwanda, the DRC and Lesotho. These interventions took place despite high expectations of international and regional peace on the part of most analysts after the collapse of cold war in 1989. However, interstate and intrastate conflicts re-emerged with more intensity than ever before, and sub-Saharan Africa proved to be no exception.</p> <p><br /> The study sets out to analyse the motives and/or causes of military interventions in Rwanda in 1990, the DRC in 1996-7, and the DRC military rebellion and the Lesotho intervention in 1998. In analysing these interventions, the study borrows extensively from the work of dominant security theorists of international relations, predominantly realists who conceptualise international relations as a struggle for power and survival in the anarchic world. The purpose of this analysis is fourfold / firstly, to determine the reasons for military interventions and the extent to which these interventions were conducted on humanitarian grounds / secondly, to investigate the degree to which or not intervening countries were spurred by their national interests / thirdly, to assess the roles of international organisations like Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) and the United Nations, in facilitating these interventions / as well as to evaluate the role of parliaments of intervening countries in authorising or not these military interventions in terms of holding their Executives accountable. In this context, the analysis argues that the intervening countries / Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Chad, Namibia, Rwanda, Sudan, South Africa, Uganda and Zimbabwe appeared to have used intervention as a realist foreign policy tool in the absence of authorisation from the United Nations and its subordinate bodies such as the OAU and SADC.</p>

Thesis (PhD) -- Macquarie University, School of History, Philosophy, and Politics, Centre for Conflict Resolution, 1995. / Includes bibliographical references and appendices. / This thesis presents the findings of a participatory action research project conducted in Enga Province, Papua New Guinea. -- The advantages and disadvantages of participatory action research in Conflict Resolution are discussed, with special reference to their common basis in a contemporary philosophy of cognition and learning. The practical and ethical issues of cross-cultural training in Conflict Resolution are reviewed. The research process is described and particular research methods evaluated. Comparison with the methods and findings of earlier research is also presented. The issues are illustrated by means of case studies drawn from a period of field work (March 1992-April 1993, December 1993-February 1994, and August 1994). -- The research involved the analysis and evaluation of both traditional and modern means of conflict resolution used by Enga people or by other agencies within Enga Province during the period of research. The outcome of resolved conflict is gutpela sindaun ("good sitting") a Tok Pisin (Melanesian Pidgin) phrase that translates the Enga phrases auu pyoo katenge and auu pyoo petenge ("being or staying well," conceived from a masculine "standing" [katenge] or feminine "sitting" [petenge] perspective). These phrases are frequently used to describe peaceful intergroup relations. In considering how this state might be brought about, special attention is paid to the preferred methods of the people themselves (cross-cutting alliances, exchange relationships, and violent self-help), government (the Village Court System, economic development, and punitive measures), and churches and religious movements (conversion, forgiveness, and reconciliation). -- The special role of new religious movements as social movements for peace is highlighted. A comprehensive policy proposal is presented for further discussion by interested parties. -- This information, its interpretation, application, and implementation are presently part of an ongoing participatory action research process sponsored by the Catholic Diocese of Wabag (Enga Province). This thesis therefore forms a summary of the data as of December 1994, which must in turn be evaluated by those whose practice it is intended to inform. / Mode of access: World Wide Web. / xxii, [3], 413 leaves ill. (some col.)

Univ., Diss.--Frankfurt (Oder), 2004.

H διατριβή συμβάλει στην πολυεπίπεδη και σε βάθος μελέτη της διαχείρισης κρίσεων στο πλαίσιο της δημόσιας διοίκησης. Σκοπός της μελέτης είναι να εντοπισθούν και να αξιολογηθούν οι παράγοντες που επηρεάζουν συνολικά τη διαδικασία της διαχείρισης κρίσεων καθώς και τη λειτουργία των ομάδων διαχείρισης κρίσεων προκειμένου η δημόσια διοίκηση και οι άνθρωποι που εμπλέκονται να είναι όσο το δυνατόν πιο αποτελεσματικοί για να αποφευχθούν κρίσεις ή να μετριασθούν οι συνέπειες της με την σωστή αντιμετώπιση. Δεδομένου ότι η διεθνής βιβλιογραφία είναι περιορισμένη ιδιαίτερα σε ότι αφορά τη διαχείριση κρίσεων στη δημόσια διοίκηση, επιχειρήθηκε να αναδειχθούν με όσο το δυνατόν μεγαλύτερη σαφήνεια αυτοί οι παράγοντες. Η έρευνα στηρίχθηκε σε στελέχη που συμμετείχαν σε ομάδες διαχείρισης κρίσεων από ολόκληρο το φάσμα της ελληνικής δημόσιας διοίκησης σε διάφορες θέσεις ευθύνης. Τα άτομα αυτά συμμετείχαν σε ομάδες διαχείρισης κρίσεων που αντιμετώπισαν σημαντικά ζητήματα όπως ήταν οι Ολυμπιακοί Αγώνες στην Αθήνα το 2004, οι μεγάλες πυρκαγιές το καλοκαίρι του 2007, θέματα εγχώριας τρομοκρατίας και εθνικής ασφάλειας καθώς και δημοσίας υγείας από το 2000 έως το 2009. Για τη μελέτη μας λαμβάνουμε ως δεδομένο, σύμφωνα με τη διεθνή βιβλιογραφία, ότι η διαδικασία της διαχείρισης κρίσεων αποτελείται από τρεις γενικές φάσεις. Τη φάση πριν την κρίση που περιλαμβάνει την ανίχνευση σημάτων έλευσης μιας ενδεχόμενης κρίσης, την πρόληψη και την προετοιμασία αντιμετώπισης της. Τη φάση της κρίσης που περιλαμβάνει τον καθορισμό της κατάστασης ως κρίση και την αντιμετώπισή της και τη φάση μετά την κρίση που περιλαμβάνει την ανάκαμψη και τη γνώση που αποκτάται από την αντιμετώπιση της. Η έρευνα επικεντρώνεται ξεχωριστά στις τρεις φάσεις της διαχείρισης κρίσεων εξετάζοντας την αλληλεξάρτηση παραγόντων όπως είναι οι τύποι της κρίσης όπως διαμορφώνονται με τα κριτήρια της δυνατότητας πρόβλεψης και αντιμετώπισης, οι φάσεις της διαχείρισης κρίσεων μεταξύ τους, η ικανότητα του ηγέτη να λαμβάνει αποφάσεις σε κρίσιμες καταστάσεις, η συναισθηματική νοημοσύνη του, η ικανότητα των μελών της ομάδας να λαμβάνουν αποφάσεις, ο επίσημος ή ανεπίσημος τρόπος εσωτερικής επικοινωνίας της ομάδας και οι στρατηγικές επικοινωνίας με την κοινή γνώμη. Στη συνέχεια λαμβάνουμε υπόψη ότι και στις τρεις φάσεις προκύπτουν εντάσεις και διαφωνίες μεταξύ του επικεφαλής της ομάδας διαχείρισης κρίσεων και μελών της ομάδας έτσι η έρευνα προχώρησε παράλληλα στην μελέτη των παραγόντων που επηρεάζουν την επιλογή από ένα μέλος της ομάδας διαχείρισης κρίσεων της μεθόδους διοίκησης της σύγκρουσης του με τον επικεφαλής. Εξετάσθηκαν όλοι οι παραπάνω παράγοντες, πλην των στρατηγικών εξωτερικής επικοινωνίας, αν και κατά πόσο επηρεάζουν στην επιλογή της μεθόδου διοίκησης συγκρούσεων. Δεδομένου ότι δίνεται σε κρίσιμες στιγμές έμφαση σε τρόπους διαχείρισης συγκρούσεων που έχουν ως βάση τη συνεργασία από τις πέντε μεθόδους διοίκησης συγκρούσεων που αναφέρονται στη βιβλιογραφία δεν μελετούμε την επιβολή και την αποφυγή, αλλά τις υπόλοιπες τρεις την ενσωμάτωση την παραχώρηση και το συμβιβασμό. Η μελέτη αντικειμενικών και υποκειμενικών παραγόντων που επηρεάζουν τη διαχείριση κρίσεων σε κάθε φάση αλλά και τον τρόπο που διαχειρίζονται τις συγκρούσεις και τις διαφωνίες σε μια ομάδα διαχείρισης κρίσεων στο πλαίσιο της δημόσιας διοίκησης συμβάλλει τελικά στη διαμόρφωση μιας συνολικής εικόνας τόσο για τη λειτουργία σε μια κρίση όσο και για τη συμπεριφορά των ανθρώπων που συμμετέχουν σε αυτή τη διαδικασία Το γεγονός αυτό έχει ιδιαίτερη αξία αφού οι κρίσεις που αφορούν άμεσα ή απαιτούν έμμεσα την εμπλοκή της δημόσιας διοίκησης έχουν μεγάλο αντίκτυπο σε μια χώρα και τους πολίτες της. Η έρευνα οδήγησε συνοπτικά στα ακόλουθα συμπεράσματα: Οι τρείς φάσεις της διαχείρισης κρίσεων, δηλαδή η φάση πριν την κρίση, η φάση της κρίσης και η φάση μετά την κρίση αλληλεξαρτώνται γεγονός που αποδεικνύει ότι η διαδικασία της διαχείριση κρίσεων δεν μια αποσπασματική αλλά μια αλληλένδετη διαδικασία, γεγονός που μας οδηγεί στο συμπέρασμα ότι απαιτούνται και οι τρεις φάσεις προκειμένου να θεωρηθεί η διαχείριση μιας κρίσης ολοκληρωμένη και αποτελεσματική. Ιδιαίτερη αξία έχει ότι η πρώτη φάση επηρεάζει περισσότερο από κάθε άλλο παράγοντα τις επόμενες φάσεις. Επίσης είναι αξιοσημείωτο ότι κάθε κρίση ακόμα και αν έχει αντιμετωπισθεί με τον καλύτερο τρόπο προκαλεί ζημία στη δημόσια διοίκηση και αρρυθμία στη λειτουργία της, όπως διαπιστώνουμε στη μελέτη της τελευταίας φάσης. Επίσης παρατηρήθηκε ότι έχει ιδιαίτερη σημασία η ικανότητα του επικεφαλής της ομάδας διαχείρισης κρίσεων να εκτιμά πληροφορίες και να λαμβάνει αποφάσεις σε συνθήκες έκτακτης ανάγκης, ενώ ένα σημαντικό εύρημα είναι ότι η εξέλιξη της φάσης της αναγνώρισης μιας κατάστασης ως κρίση και της αντιμετώπισή της, επηρεάζεται από την ικανότητα των μελών της ομάδας διαχείρισης κρίσεων να λαμβάνουν αποφάσεις. Παράλληλα διαπιστώθηκε ότι ο ενδεδειγμένος τρόπος εσωτερικής επικοινωνίας μεταξύ των μελών της ομάδας είναι ο επίσημος. Η εσωτερική επικοινωνία με κανόνες και διαδικασίες επηρεάζει θετικά τόσο τη φάση πριν την κρίση όσο και τη φάση της κρίσης. Αντίθετα διαπιστώνουμε ότι επηρεάζει αρνητικά την τελευταία φάση που ενδεχομένως μετά την κρίση να μην υφίστανται αυτές οι επίσημες διαδικασίες όπως είχαν καθοριστεί την κρίση. Ταυτόχρονα παρατηρούμε ότι η φάση της κρίσης εξελίσσεται καλύτερα αν επιλεγούν από όλες τις στρατηγικές εξωτερικής επικοινωνίας αυτές που εστιάζουν στην υποβάθμιση των γεγονότων, δηλαδή οι στρατηγικές επικοινωνίας που στόχο έχουν να περιορίσουν στην κοινή γνώμη την πεποίθηση ότι η δημόσια διοίκηση φέρει ευθύνη για την κρίση, συμπληρωματικά με τις στρατηγικές ενίσχυσης της εικόνας όπως είναι η υπενθύμιση του καλού παρελθόντος ή η παρουσίαση του οργανισμού ως «θύμα» της κρίσης. Τέλος τα χαρακτηριστικά της κρίσης διαπιστώνουμε ότι επηρεάζουν την εξέλιξη δυο εκ των τριών φάσεων. Τη φάση πριν και τη φάση μετά την κρίση. Προχωρώντας την έρευνά μας σε βάθος και μελετώντας τη διαχείριση των συγκρούσεων μεταξύ του επικεφαλής και του μέλους μιας ομάδας διαχείρισης κρίσεων στο πλαίσιο της δημόσιας διοίκησης διαπιστώσαμε ότι η καταλληλότερη μέθοδος είναι η ενσωμάτωση η οποία προϋποθέτει υψηλό ενδιαφέρον τόσο για ατομικούς στόχους όσο και στόχους τρίτων. Αυτή η μέθοδος διοίκησης συγκρούσεων θεωρείται η πλέον ενδεδειγμένη σε περιπτώσεις διαφωνιών σε πολύπλοκα θέματα που έχουν να κάνουν με στρατηγικούς στόχους και πολιτικές μακροχρόνιου σχεδιασμού όπως συμβαίνει στη δημόσια διοίκηση. Ταυτόχρονα η έρευνα κατέληξε σε σημαντικά συμπεράσματα. Πιο συγκεκριμένα αναδεικνύεται ο σημαντικός ρόλος του επικεφαλής της ομάδας διαχείρισης κρίσεων, αφού τόσο η ικανότητα του να λαμβάνει κρίσιμες αποφάσεις όσο και η συναισθηματική του νοημοσύνη επηρεάζουν σημαντικά το μέλος της ομάδας στην απόφασή του για το ποιά μέθοδο θα ακολουθήσει προκειμένου να διαχειριστεί μια διαφωνία ή μια σύγκρουση μαζί του. Επίσης πολύ σημαντικό εύρημα είναι ότι από τις φάσεις της διαχείρισης κρίσεων, η φάση μετά την κρίση, η δυσκολότερη όπως προκύπτει από την έρευνα μας για τη δημόσια διοίκηση, επηρεάζει αρνητικά την επιλογή δυο από τις τρεις μεθόδους διοίκησης συγκρούσεων. Ενδεχομένως η έντονη πίεση και το βίωμα της αντιμετώπισης της κρίσης ίσως να καθιστά τα άτομα ευάλωτα και να τα οδηγεί στην απόρριψη της οποιασδήποτε ιδέας για σύγκρουση ή διαφωνία με τον επικεφαλής και ενδεχομένως να παρουσιάζουν μια πειθήνια συμπεριφορά. Αντίθετα παρατηρούμε ότι τόσο η φάση της κρίσης όσο και αυτή πριν την κρίση επηρεάζουν την επιλογή διαφορετικών στρατηγικών αλλά με θετικό τρόπο. Τέλος είναι αξιοσημείωτο ότι όλες οι αποφάσεις διαχείρισης μιας σύγκρουσης επηρεάζονται από τα χαρακτηριστικά της κρίσης τόσο ως προς την προβλεψιμότητα όσο και από τη δυνατότητα αντιμετώπισής της. / This thesis aims to provide an in-depth analysis of crisis management in public administration. The purpose of this study is to identify and evaluate the factors that affect crisis management practices and operation of the crisis management teams in order for public administration and the human resources involved to be as efficient as possible and to avoid crises or mitigate their consequences. Since the existing literature on the subject is particularly limited, the author attempted to present a comprehensive analysis of the above factors. The research was based on executives who participated in crisis management teams of a wide range of Greek public administration entities. These individuals participated in crisis management teams that dealt with important events such as the Olympic Games in Athens in 2004, the wildfires of 2007, as well as matters of terrorism, national security and public health during the years 2000 to 2009. In accordance with the international literature, we shall accept in our study that the crisis management process consists of three main phases. The first phase involves: a) detecting early signs of a possible crisis, b) prevention and c) preparation to confront the crisis. The second phase involves determining the situation as a crisis and responding to it. Finally, the post-crisis phase includes the recovery and the knowledge acquired through this process. The research focuses on the three separate phases of crisis management by examining the interdependence of factors such as the types of crisis shaped by the criteria of predictability and response, the phases of crisis management between them, the ability of the leader to make decisions in critical situations, the leader's emotional intelligence, the ability of team members to make decisions, the official or unofficial mode of internal communication in the team and the external communication strategies. It ought to be taken into account that tension and disagreements between the leader of the crisis management team and team members is possible in all three phases. Consequently, the research proceeded to examine the factors influencing the style chosen by a member of the crisis management team in managing the conflict with the leader. External communication strategies excluded, the above factors were examined as to whether they can affect the choice of a conflict management style. In crucial instants, emphasis is given on ways of managing conflicts that are based on cooperation. in view of this and the five conflict management styles referred in the literature considered, we shall study the following three: Integrating, Obliging, Compromising. The study of objective and subjective factors affecting crisis management in each phase and the manner of conflicts and disagreements in a crisis management team, ultimately contributes to a broad perspective for both operating in a crisis as and the behavior of the people involved in this process This is of particular value since crises that directly or indirectly require governmental interference have a significant impact on a country and its citizens. Concisely, the investigation led to the following conclusions: The three phases of crisis management, i.e. the pre-crisis phase, the phase of crisis and post-crisis phase are interdependent, which demonstrates that the process of crisis management is not a fragmentary but an interrelated process. This leads us to the conclusion that all three phases are required for crisis management to be integrated and efficient. It is noteworthy that the first phase greatly affects the two subsequent phases. and that every crisis, even if treated in the optimum way, poses significant burden to the administration, as we gather from the study of the last phase. What is more, it was observed that the ability of the leader of a crisis management team to assess information and make decisions in emergency circumstances is of prime importance, while a significant conclusion was that the development of the phase of elevation of a situation to a crisis status and the response to it is influenced by the ability of members of the crisis management group to make decisions. At the same time, it was determined that the appropriate manner of internal communication among team members is the formal one. An internal communication protocol with rules and processes positively affects both the pre-crisis phase and the crisis phase. Conversely, we find that it has the adverse effect in the post crisis phase. Meanwhile, we observe that the phase of the crisis better develops if, from all these external communication strategies, we choose those that focus on minimizing the importance of events, i.e. communication strategies that aim to moderate public opinion that the government is responsible for the crisis, in support of strategies of image boost, such as reminders of prior good performance or presentation of the organization as a possible "victim" of the crisis. Finally, we conclude that the features of crisis influence the development of two of the three phases, that is the pre-crisis and the post-crisis phases. Through further research and by studying conflict management between the leader and a member of a crisis management team, it was realized that the best method is integrating, which involves high interest for both individual targets and goals of others. This method of conflict management is the most appropriate in cases of disputes over complex issues that involve strategic objectives and long-term planning policies as in the case of public administration. Meanwhile, the investigation led to important conclusions. More specifically, the important role of the team leader for crisis management is highlighted, since both the ability to take critical decisions and the emotional intelligence significantly affect the team member in deciding what method to follow in order to manage a dispute or a conflict with him/her. Another very important finding is that among the phases of crisis management, the phase after the crisis, while being the harder it is clear from our research on public administration, also negatively affects the choice of two of the three methods of conflict management. Perhaps the intense pressure and the experience of dealing with the crisis might make people vulnerable and can lead to the mitigation of any urge for conflict or disagreement with the leader and may result to a submissive behavior. Instead, we observe that both the phase of the crisis and that before the crisis affects the choice of different strategies but in a positive way. Finally, it is noteworthy that all conflict management decisions are influenced by the characteristics of the crisis such as the predictability and the ability to influence it.

Just as conflict is part of everyday life, mediation can and is practiced everyday and everywhere. It is a way of reaching decisions in a cooperative, non-hierarchical way, allowing for clear and open communication processes. Conflicts can be resolved in a formal manner through courts, arbitration, ombudspeople, diplomacy and mediation, or an informal manner through friends, colleagues, religious and community leaders, and dialogue. The way in which people resolve their disputes has an impact on how societies and institutions are governed. The war in Bakassi has taken its toll on the people of that area for several years now and has witnessed people from Bakassi facing some of the worst effects of armed conflict known to man. This study investigated the use of international mediation in the management of intractable conflict with a specific case study on the Bakassi peninsula conflict between Cameroon and Nigeria. It focused on the mediation process as a conflict management technique in relation to the international relations theories which has been used as a basis for conflict resolution practices. The researcher conducted a document review, content analysis on selected documents and this was supported by strategic interviews. The findings as well as the researcher‘s recommendations are discussed in the study in order to assist the future work of conflict management specialists and other stakeholders who have devoted their efforts to the recovery of areas emerging from conflict.

Text in Afrikaans / This study aims to analyze the conflict resolution process in Zimbabwe after the Lancaster House Agreement and the subsequent elections from March 4, 1980 up until 2002. The objective is to determine what effect this process has had on all the people in Zimbabwe, both nationally and locally. It also endeavours to evaluate their attempts to transform from a violent culture of guerilla warfare, to an all-inclusive sustainable peaceful environment and culture. The reason for this specific time period of the study lies in the fact that the peace building process of the Zimbabwean conflict resolution process was supposed to be introduced during this time. This is the era during which the root of historic conflict, according to the peace building theory, has had to be transformed. It also implies the start of the implementation of the radical land reform process. From this perspective the following 5 key questions form the raison d‟être of the study and will be analyzed in the different chapters: 1. The requirements for sustainable peace, according to the conflict resolution and peace building theory, as developed by Galtung, Mitchell, Lederach, Burton and Anstey. 2. The characteristics of the historical conflict structure to be transformed during the post-1980 period. 3. An evaluation of the development of an all inclusive, multi-faceted and integrated program for the transformation of the historical conflict structure. 4. An evaluation of the international managers‟ contributions for laying the foundation for the integration of peace-making and the subsequent phases of the peace building process. It also questions the degree of reconciliation and peace building. 5. The lessons learnt from the Zimbabwean experience and its implications for conflict resolutions and peace implementation processes in Southern African societies. Included in this question is to seek clarification and to develop proposals about the roles and contributions of internal and external role players on all levels of society in such processes. Hence the conclusive finding that conflict resolution and peace building is an integrated multi-dimensional process. This conclusion is confirmed in the Zimbabwean situation. Conflict involves the entanglement of needs, unappeased perceptions and codes of conduct during the period of negotiations. In Zimbabwe the escalation and de-escalation of these influences are clearly observed. The evaluation and manipulation of the history of Zimababwe, of which the manipulation is still continuing, is harming the process of reconciliation and peace building. The absence of an inclusive raison d‟être for all parties involved (regarding differences and diversities on ethnical, social, economical and other levels) implies a strong escalating and de-escalating factor in the irreconcilability in Zimbabwe. The initiation of an integrated and multi-dimensional process, mechanism and framework of reconciliation and peace is strongly advised. This process, mechanism and framework has to have an integrated structure starting at international level (United Nations Peace Building Commission) decentralizing into regional, national, provincial and local government structures. The process and mechanism must be part of the establishment of conflict resolution and peace building as an generic management style and approach aimed at the political and governing processes of societies in transformation. This is especially important for the current Zimbabwean situation. / Die oogmerk van die studie is „n ontleding van die konflikresolusie-proses in Zimbabwe sedert die Lancaster House-ooreenkoms en die daaropvolgende verkiesings van 4 Maart 1980 tot en met die jaar 2002. Die doelstelling is om te bepaal in watter mate en op welke wyse, daar op alle vlakke van die gemeenskap nasionaal en op plaaslike vlak, gepoog is om die geweldskultuur, wat kenmerkend van die guerrilla-oorlog was, te transformeer tot „n volhoubare inklusiewe vredesomgewing en -kultuur. „n Primêre motivering vir die keuse van die bepaalde navorsingstydperk is dat dit veronderstel is om die vredebou-periode van die Zimbabwiese konflikresolusie-proses in te lui. Dit is die era waartydens die bronne van die historiese konflik, ooreenkomstig die vredebou-teorie, getransformeer moes word. Dit sluit ook die era in waartydens die eerste stappe van die radikale grondhervormingsproses geïmplementeer is. In die lig hiervan word die onderstaande 5 kernvraagstukke as raison d‟être van die studie op „n hoofstukbasis ondersoek: 1. Wat is die vereistes vir volhoubare vrede, ooreenkomstig die konflikresolusie- en vredebouteorie soos veral ontwikkel deur Galtung, Mitchell, Lederach, Burton en Anstey? 2. Wat was die kenmerke van die historiese konflikstruktuur wat in die post-1980- periode moes transformeer? 3. Het daar in die post-1980-periode „n inklusiewe, multi-vlakkige en geïntegreerde program vir die transformasie van die historiese konflikstruktuur, ontwikkel? 4. Het die internasionale bestuurders van die proses die grondslag gelê vir „n integrering van vredevestiging met die verdere fases van vredebou? In watter mate was versoening en vredebou enigsins „n prioriteit? Indien nie, waarom nie? 5. Watter lesse kan vanuit die Zimbabwiese ervaring geleer word wat kan bydra tot 'n beter begrip van praktiese konflikresolusie en vredebou-implementeringsprosesse in veral Suider-Afrikaanse gemeenskappe? Watter bydraes kan en moet interne en eksterne rolspelers speel? Voortspruitend hieruit word daar ook aanbevelings aan die hand gedoen oor die integrasie van internasionale en nasionale (eerste, tweede en derde vlakke) rolspelers in hierdie verband. Teen hierdie agtergrond word samevattend bevind dat konflikresolusie en vredebou, „n geïntegreerde multi-dimensionele en multi-vlakkige proses is. Vanuit die Zimbabwe situasie word bevind en bevestig dat konflik uit „n geïntegreerde wisselwerking van behoefte- en doel-onversoenbaarheidspersepsies met voort-spruitende konflikterende gesindhede en gedragspatroon-verskynsels, bestaan. Daar word ook aangetoon dat daar duidelike eskalerende en de-eskalerende invloede teenwoordig is. Daar is ook bevind dat die wyse hoe die geskiedenis van Zimbabwe evalueer en hanteer is en steeds word, die bou van versoening en langtermyn vrede benadeel. Die afwesigheid van „n inklusiewe raison d‟être wat alle rolspelers inbind tot een Zimbabwiese sentiment, ten spyte van diepliggende verskille en diversiteite op etniese, stam, sosiale, ekonomiese, klas en ander terreine, is „n sterk eskalerende faktor en gevolg in hierdie verband. Die loodsing van „n diepliggende en veelvlakkige versoeningsproses, sal die identifisering van sódanige sentiment – die aorta van Zimbabwe se konstruktiewe, volhoubare voortbestaan – as primêre samebindende prioriteit moet neem. Teen hierdie agtergrond word „n geïntegreede versoenings- en vredebou meganisme en raamwerk ontwikkel en voorgestel. „n Meganisme en proses wat multi-vlakkige deelname vanaf „n internasionale (United Nations Peace Building Commission) tot en met „n streeks, nasionale, provinsiale en plaaslike fokusvlak, verseker. „n Proses en meganisme wat ook deel uitmaak van die meer prominente vestiging en institusionalisering van konflikresolusie en vredebou as „n generiese bestuurstyl en program in die politieke en regeerprosesse in oorgangsamelewings, maar veral ook in die Zimbabwe situasie. / Political Science / D. Litt. et Phil. (Afrika-Politiek)