Au cours des dernières années, le domaine de la consommation a grandement évolué. Les agents de marketing ont commencé à utiliser l’Internet pour influencer les consommateurs en employant des tactiques originales et imaginatives qui ont rendus possible l’atteinte d'un niveau de communication interpersonnelle qui avait précédemment été insondable. Leurs interactions avec les consommateurs, en utilisant la technologie moderne, se manifeste sous plusieurs formes différentes qui sont toutes accompagnés de leur propre assortiment de problèmes juridiques. D’abord, il n'est pas rare pour les agents de marketing d’utiliser des outils qui leur permettent de suivre les actions des consommateurs dans le monde virtuel ainsi que dans le monde physique. Les renseignements personnels recueillis d'une telle manière sont souvent utilisés à des fins de publicité comportementale en ligne – une utilisation qui ne respecte pas toujours les limites du droit à la vie privée. Il est également devenu assez commun pour les agents de marketing d’utiliser les médias sociaux afin de converser avec les consommateurs. Ces forums ont aussi servi à la commission d’actes anticoncurrentiels, ainsi qu’à la diffusion de publicités fausses et trompeuses – deux pratiques qui sont interdites tant par la loi sur la concurrence que la loi sur la protection des consommateurs. Enfin, les agents de marketing utilisent diverses tactiques afin de joindre les consommateurs plus efficacement en utilisant diverses tactiques qui les rendent plus visible dans les moteurs de recherche sur Internet, dont certaines sont considérés comme malhonnêtes et pourraient présenter des problèmes dans les domaines du droit de la concurrence et du droit des marques de commerce. Ce mémoire offre une description détaillée des outils utilisés à des fins de marketing sur Internet, ainsi que de la manière dont ils sont utilisés. Il illustre par ailleurs les problèmes juridiques qui peuvent survenir à la suite de leur utilisation et définit le cadre législatif régissant l’utilisation de ces outils par les agents de marketing, pour enfin démontrer que les lois qui entrent en jeu dans de telles circonstances peuvent, en effet, se révéler bénéfiques pour ces derniers d'un point de vue économique. / The evolution of consumerism in recent years has been nothing short of remarkable. The unprecedented use of the Internet by marketers to influence consumers in original and imaginative ways has rendered possible a level of communicative efficiency that had previously been unfathomable. Their interaction with consumers using modern technology manifests itself in several different forms – all of which are accompanied by their own assortment of legal issues. To begin with, it is not unheard of for marketers to use tools meant to track the behaviour of individuals throughout both the virtual and physical worlds. The personal information collected in such a manner is often utilized for Online Behavioural Advertising purposes – a use which does not always respect the boundaries of privacy law. It has also become rather common for marketers to utilize online social media to promote conversations with consumers. It has occurred, however, that these forums have also been utilized to further the anti-competitive ambitions of companies while also serving as an outlet for false advertising – two eventualities that are prohibited by both competition laws and consumer protection laws. Finally, marketers utilize various tactics in order to more successfully reach consumers through online search engines – a practice known as Search Engine Marketing – some of which are considered to be dishonest and could present issues from both competition law and trademark law perspectives. This thesis essentially provides a detailed description of these tools and the manners in which they are utilized and then proceeds to illustrate the legal issues that may arise as a result of their use. In doing so, it outlines the legal boundaries within which marketers must use these tools so as to ultimately demonstrate that the laws that come into play under such circumstances may, in fact, prove to be beneficial to marketers from an economic perspective.

L’obiettivo del presente lavoro di ricerca è quello di porre in luce la cosiddetta “dimensione relazionale” dell’informazione fornita ai consumatori di alimenti tramite l’etichettatura nutrizionale e salutistica, intesa quale strumento normativo per l’attuazione delle politiche nutrizionali perseguite dall'Unione Europea. Il presente scritto analizza come le funzioni dell’etichettatura alimentare siano mutate durante i decenni, a partire dalla fine degli anni settanta del secolo scorso, quando essa era sì concepita come strumento informativo, ma il cui scopo principale rimaneva tuttavia quello di appianare le varie difformità legislative o regolamentari esistenti tra i vari Stati Membri – potendo queste rappresentare un ostacolo alla creazione di un mercato comune – sino ai giorni nostri, che vedono l’etichetta come una protagonista attiva in seno ad un più ampio programma di politica nutrizionale; più precisamente, attraverso un’adeguata etichettatura alimentare, le istituzioni dell’Unione Europea ambiscono a plasmare le abitudini alimentari dei consumatori, indirizzandoli verso percorsi nutrizionali più salutari. In tale contesto, il Regolamento sulle indicazioni nutrizionali e sulla salute fornite sugli alimenti rappresenta un ambizioso e, al tempo stesso, controverso tassello del diritto alimentare europeo, le cui premesse ispiratrici erano indubbiamente lodevoli, ma che è stato vittima, successivamente, di un’attuazione che ha generato notevole scontento ed incertezza sia tra i consumatori che nell'industria, al punto tale che da più parti si nutrono dubbi in merito alla sua efficacia e validità. Il presente lavoro di ricerca ambisce quindi a fornire una profonda analisi del Regolamento sulle indicazioni nutrizionali e sulla salute, offrendo una panoramica di esso in chiave storica, sociale, ed economica, imprescindibile al fine di una corretta e completa comprensione delle scelte normative e delle loro implicazioni di mercato. In ossequio a tale intento, in ogni apertura di paragrafo è offerto un inquadramento di taglio storico-normativo, mentre, in conclusione, si tenta di fornire qualche spunto critico da cui potrebbe, o avrebbe potuto, derivare una migliore attuazione del Regolamento. Dopo una breve introduzione, la ricerca entra nel suo vivo attraverso l’analisi di ogni aspetto del Regolamento (CE) n. 1924/2006, soffermandosi, in particolar modo, su quello che è l’aspetto cruciale e problematico relativo alla sua attuazione: il ruolo della scienza e, più precisamente, la valutazione circa la fondatezza scientifica dei claims, procedimento che, in assenza di chiare definizioni normative ed operative, è di fatto rimesso alla discrezionalità interpretativa dell’EFSA, avallata (implicitamente o esplicitamente) dalla Commissione Europea e dalla Corte di Giustizia dell’Unione Europea, generando così reazioni critiche tra pratici ed accademici che accusano una illegittima applicazione del principio di precauzione in un ambito che gli è estraneo, vale a dire quello dell’informazione alimentare al consumatore finale. Il lavoro prosegue poi con una riflessione sull'esito finale di un siffatto adagiamento sul processo di validazione scientifica condotto dall’EFSA, che ha ridotto la più parte della conoscenza nutrizionale a poco più di 200 indicazioni sulla salute autorizzate, la cui formulazione letterale, tra l’altro, si dubita assai possa essere agevolmente compresa dal cosiddetto consumatore medio. Inoltre, il Regolamento lascia irrisolti e aperte molti dilemmi e questioni, che devono urgentemente trovare un positivo interessamento al fine di non vanificare gli apprezzabili sforzi di spinta alla ricerca innovativa e di garanzia di una leale ed effettiva concorrenza nell'industria alimentare; il riferimento corre, tra gli altri, ai cosiddetti “claims botanici” ed ai “probiotici”, in relazione ai quali è ad oggi impedito reclamizzare in etichetta un’indicazione salutistica, sull’assunto per cui non è ancora stato raggiunto un livello accettabile di consenso scientifico relativamente alla loro sicurezza d’uso ed efficacia. Di conseguenza, se lo stato dell’arte è connotato da un simile proibizionismo, gli operatori del settore alimentare si trovano nella situazione di dover ricorrere a diverse strategie commerciali, quali l’utilizzo di claims suggestivi che, proposti attraverso messaggi non testuali, come nel caso del food design, si rivelano cionondimeno in grado di veicolare un messaggio salutistico, senza però la soggezione allo stretto rigore scientifico richiesto dall’EFSA. Infine, il presente lavoro, seppur prevalentemente rivolto alla descrizione dello scenario regolativo europeo, non dimentica di fornire una utile prospettiva del tema anche in chiave comparata, spaziando dalle linee guida predisposte dal Codex Alimentarius agli accordi vigenti in ambito OMC applicabili all’etichettatura degli alimenti, alimentando, per l’appunto, perplessità circa la compatibilità del Regolamento (CE) n° 1924/2006 con le obbligazioni gravanti sull’Unione Europea imposte dalla sua appartenenza al WTO. / The topic of the present research is to highlight the relational dimension of the information provided to consumers via food labelling, intended as a legal tool for the implementation of the nutrition policy carried out by the EU institutions since the establishment of the European Economic Community. The present work analyses how the function of food labelling has changed during the decades, since the late Seventies of the past century, when it was merely conceived as a mean of information whose main purpose was the harmonisation of the different national legislations, which could constitute an unnecessary obstacle to the realization of the common internal market, to the most recent days, when food labelling is thought as a tool of active nutrition policy; more precisely, through an adequate labelling, the EU institutions try to shape consumers’ behaviours, driving them toward a healthier eating. In this regulatory scenario, the Regulation on Nutrition and Health Claims made on foods is an ambitious and controversial piece of European food law, whose premises were undoubtedly laudable, but which has been during the years (partially) implemented in a manner which has caused much more discontent and confusion among both consumers and manufacturers, so that nowadays many doubts are still arising for what concerns its efficacy and its validity. This research represents a deep analysis of the Regulation on Nutrition and Health Claims, also taken into consideration from the historical, sociological, and economic perspective, which must be necessarily intertwined for a complete and critical comprehension of the legal framework and its implications for the various stakeholders. For this reason, each paragraph begins with a sort of normative background, and concludes with a critical analysis of the existing situation, providing some hints for a better implementation of the NHCR. After a brief introduction, the core of the research is completely and deeply focused on each and every aspect of the Regulation, with a central part which takes into consideration the very crucial aspect of its partial and problematic ongoing implementation: the role of science and, more precisely, the requirement of the scientific substantiation of the claims, whose assessment is demanded to the EFSA that, in the absence of definitions and clear guidelines on how to conduct such an evaluation, has de facto given its personal interpretation of the normative provisions of the Regulation, on which also the Commission and the European Court of Justice (implicitly or explicitly) rely, causing discontent among operators and legal scholars who see this as an illegitimate application of the precautionary principle to the field of food information, and a possible departure from the traditional categories of the risk assessment, risk management, and legal interpretation. The analysis proceeds then by criticizing the results of the total reliance on the scientific evaluation carried out by the EFSA, which reduced most of the knowledge about nutrition science in few more than 200 approved health claims, whose wording is probably incomprehensible for the average consumer. Moreover, there are also many other open issues in the Regulation on Nutrition and Health Claims which need to be urgently addressed in order not to vanish the laudable purpose of stimulating innovation and competition in the food sector, namely the botanical claims and probiotics, which are now prevented from bearing health claims on the consideration that a complete scientific consensus about their safety and efficacy has not yet been reached. But if this is the largely prohibitive state of the art, manufacturers are of course encouraged to find different escape routes, one of which is recurring to implied health claims, adopted through non-textual messages, or, to rephrase, through a smart food design, which can convey the same representation of healthiness without being subject to the strict scientific boundaries standardised by the EFSA. In addition, and as a conclusion, the present work, although mainly focused on the European Union regulatory environment, tries to give a comparative view on what the international arena offers on the topic, from the Codex Alimentarius Commission to the various WTO Agreements pertaining to food labelling, instilling doubts about the NHCR compatibility with the obligations that the EU must fulfil in the international trade law relations.

The topic of this thesis is: Travel contracts according to the new Civil Code. The thesis consists of two parts - theoretical and practical. The theoretical part deals with the basic terms related to the tourism and it describes the consumer protection legislation in both the Czech Republic and the European Union. In the practical part, there is an analysis of some travel contracts (including the terms of a contract) of tour operators and travel agencies located in České Budějovice. This part also analyses the results which were obtained from the questionnaires intended for the customers of tour operators or travel agencies and for the tour operators and travel agencies.

In the context of the Internet, spam generally refers to unsolicited and unwanted electronic messages, usually transmitted to a large number of recipients. The problem with spam is that almost all of the related costs are shifted onto the recipients, and many of the messages contain objectionable content. Spam has become a significant problem for network administrators, businesses and individual Internet users that threatens to undermine the usefulness of e-mail. Globally, spam spiralled to account for over 60% of all e-mail near the end of 2004. It is a problem that costs the global economy billions of dollars a year in lost productivity, anti-spam measures and computer resources. It has forced governments to enact legislation against the problem and it has prompted the development of numerous technical countermeasures. Spam can only be defeated by a combination of legal measures, informal measures (including self regulation and social norms), technical measures and consumer education. Because spam is a relatively recent and evolving problem, the application of various common law mechanisms are explored, including the law of privacy and the law of nuisance. Various constitutional concerns may also arise in the context of spam, and the right to freedom of expression must be balanced against other competing rights and values, including the right to privacy. Comparative legislation is examined, because it is important to recognise trends in spam legislation in other jurisdictions so as to ensure a measure of interoperability with those laws. The practical difficulties in identifying spammers, and the lack of jurisdiction over offshore offenders affect the practical implementation of the current protection offered by the ECT Act. In conclusion, this thesis identifies the need for direct anti-spam legislation in South Africa, and suggests various clauses that will need to be catered for in the legislation. It is submitted that "opt-in" legislation should be preferred over "opt-out" legislation. It is further submitted that a definition of spam should be based on the volume and indiscriminate nature of the e-mail, and not only on whether the communication was commercial. Therefore, a definition of bulk unsolicited e-mail is proposed. / Criminal and Procedural Law / LLD

Despite its benefits, online peer-to-peer lending bears the risks associated with traditional forms of institutionalised lending. However, because individuals have taken over the role of the institutional lender, and the institutional participant in this form of lending takes a step back by acting only as an intermediary between the borrowers and lenders, ordinary individuals are left to bear the type of risks that institutions have traditionally borne, but without the same means of doing so. There has been little academic analysis of the role and form that regulation should take in the regulation of peer-to-peer lending and most discussions centre on the American regulatory experience. This thesis sets out to examine the theoretical classification of online peer-to-peer lending and the theoretical and practical justifications for regulating it. The aim is to ascertain the most appropriate way to regulate peer-to-peer lending, taking into account the underlying conceptual model which underpins it. The study adopts a theoretical analysis of P2PL participants and regulation based on the concepts of consumer protection and paternalism. It includes a doctrinal analysis of the UK peer-to-peer lending legislation and regulation to identify, describe and explain the rules pertaining to the industry. It also uses a comparative approach to compare P2PL with existing forms of financial lending and similar (dis)intermediated forms of transacting between individuals to show that online peer-to-peer lending is a unique form of intermediated transaction. The thesis argues that it is important that regulation displays an understanding of the underlying conceptual framework of the business model it aims to regulate. In doing so, it also argues that the peer-to-peer lending users are more than just ‘consumers’. They demonstrate a shift in the conception of individuals from consumers to prosumers because they participate in the production side of the services they receive. It goes further than existing discussions of prosumption by positing the concept of the ‘lendsumer’ to give a more accurate account of the role and experiences of peer-to-peer lenders and the effect this has on their transactional relationships and the risks they face because of this role. Based on this analysis, the thesis shows that the UK regulatory regime has limited suitability because it lacks awareness of the underlying prosumption model of peer-to-peer lending, focusing only on the business-to-consumer aspects. Consequently, it does not resolve all the issues resulting from the tripartite, participatory nature of the peer-to-peer lending transaction. In light of these findings, the thesis proposes the regulatory use of two main concepts and highlights their implications for peer-to-peer lending regulation. The first is the ‘lendsumer’ as a new paradigm of the consumer which has implications for the regulatory protections afforded to the P2P lenders. The second is the use of gatekeeper liability, adapted to online peer-to-peer lending, as a way to affect these protections in light of the particular vulnerabilities and risks experienced by the peer-to-peer lender.

Cette thèse est une étude comparative entre la loi française et la loi égyptienne ; elle porte sur le cadre juridique du cyber arbitrage dans le commerce international, ces termes signifiant la dématérialisation des procédures de l’arbitrage lequel représente un moyen alternatif pour régler les litiges commerciaux. La question est de savoir dans quelle mesure les règles de l'arbitrage traditionnel sont aptes à régir l'arbitrage dématérialisé et s’il faut créer pour ce dernier des règles juridiques spécifiques. La réponse à cette problématique s’articule autour de la possibilité pour toutes les règles de la législation d’adopter les nouvelles technologies. Notons que l’arbitrage dématérialisé est soumis à la même règle traditionnelle régie par la théorie générale des contrats, selon le principe de la volonté des parties, mais cet arbitrage se déroule hors la présence de ces dernières car par le biais de moyens électroniques. La procédure arbitrale aura lieu à distance, cependant, si au plan technique l'arbitrage en ligne se pratique aisément, il n’en va pas de même au plan juridique. En d’autres termes, l'arbitrage classique comprend pléthore de conditions impératives tant sur le fonds que sur la forme, conditions que l'arbitrage en ligne, en vertu de sa nature, ne réussit pas à satisfaire en totalité. Les deux lois comparées sont globalement convergentes et concordent avec les principes internationaux. Après une longue période de franche hostilité on note, dans les années quatre-vingts de la part des pays arabes, des changements dans leur attitude à l’égard de l’arbitrage commercial international. Toutefois, la loi française dépasse la loi égyptienne en matière électronique. / This thesis is a comparative study between French law and Egyptian law; it concerns The legal framework for cyber arbitration in international trade, these terms mean paperless arbitration procedures which represents an alternative way to resolve trade disputes. The question is to what extent the rules of traditional arbitration are able to govern dematerialized arbitration and whether to create it for specific legal rules. The answer to this problem is based on the ability of all the rules of law to adopt new technologies. Note that the dematerialized arbitration is subject to the same traditional rule governed by the general theory of contract, on the basis of the will of the parties, but the arbitration shall be conducted without the presence of the latter because through electronic means. The arbitration proceedings will be held remotely, however, if technically online arbitration easily practice it does not hold true in legal terms. In other words, the classic arbitration includes plethora of mandatory conditions on both the funds and the form, terms as online arbitration, pursuant to its nature, does not satisfy in full. Both laws are compared globally convergent and consistent with international principles. After a long period of open hostility there are, in the eighty years from Arab countries, changes in their attitude to international commercial arbitration. However, French law exceeds the Egyptian law on electronic material.

In einem mehrstufigen Forschungsansatz analysiert diese forstpolitikwissenschaftliche Arbeit die individuellen, betrieblichen und gesellschaftlich-politischen Bewertungs-, Abwägungs- und Entscheidungsprozesse im Verlauf der Verbreitung bleifreier Munition speziell in öffentlichen Forstbetrieben und im Jagdwesen in Deutschland. Die diskursanalytische Betrachtung von drei Kolloquien des Bundesinsitituts für Risikobewertung (BfR) in Berlin in den Jahren 2011, 2013 und 2014 beschreibt die Entwicklung des kontroversen öffentlichen Diskurses in Deutschland. Eine inhaltsanalytische Betrachtung der parlamentarischen Befassung mit der Thematik in Deutschland zeigt, dass es im Verlauf von 10 Jahren – trotz Streitigkeiten um die Gesetzgebungskompetenz zwischen Bund und Ländern – ab 2013 zu ersten politischen Entscheidungen auf Landesebene auch zur Nutzung bleifreier Büchsenmunition kam. Im empirischen Teil der Arbeit wird im Untersuchungsfeld “Mitarbeiter/innen öffentlicher Forstbetriebe in Deutschland“ ergründet, ob die Verwendung bleifreier Munition den Mustern der Diffusions- und Adoptionstheorie nach ROGERS folgt. Im Ergebnis aus 1.279 beantworteten Online-Fragebogen zeigt sich eine Nutzungsquote bleifreier Munition durch die befragten Forstangehörigen von 58%. Ein Anteil von 20% hat bleifreie Munition ausprobiert, wobei 22% noch gar keine eigenen Erfahrungen gemacht haben. Bereits fast 2/3 der Befragten unterliegen inzwischen einer Pflicht zur Nutzung bleifreier Munition. Obwohl die Thematik im Bewusstsein der Befragten eine Rolle spielt, wird bleifreie Munition von ihnen nicht als bedeutende Umweltinnovation wahrgenommen oder entspricht nicht den für sie geltenden Kriterien. Durch eine Varianzanalyse können zuvor charakterisierte „Adopter-Typen“ voneinander unterschieden werden. Im Gegensatz zum Modell nach ROGERS zeigen sich in der beobachteten Verteilung eine größere Gruppe der Innovatoren (15,9%) und eine kleine Gruppe der frühen Adoptoren (5,3%). Das Mittelfeld ist geringer besetzt und bildet mit früher und später Mehrheit nur einen Anteil von 46,2%, gegenüber einem Anteil von mehr als 2/3 im Modell. Der Anteil der Nachzügler ist fast doppelt so groß wie in der Verteilung nach ROGERS, was eine Beharrlichkeit gegenüber Veränderungen in der Forstbranche und im Jagdwesen im laufenden Adoptions- bzw. Diffusions-Zeitraum von bisher 15 Jahren bestätigt. Acht leitfadengestützten Experten-Interviews mit Leitern von Landesforstbetrieben bzw. Anstalten öffentlichen Rechts sowie den Bundesvorsitzenden eines forstlichen und eines jadlichen Verbandes ergänzen die quantitative Online-Befragung. Die Bewertung bleifreier Munition als Umweltinnovation und deren Bedeutung für die Jagd im Forstbetrieb unterscheidet sich im Wesentlichen durch den eingeschätzten Nutzen bzw. die Wirkung für den Forstbetrieb und die Wahrnehmung einer aktiven oder passiven Vorreiterrolle auch hinsichtlich der Nutzung (bzw. deren Anordnung) bleifreier Munition. Wesentlicher Treiber für eine Handlung ist die individuelle bzw. institutionelle Betroffenheit. / This scientific forestry policy document analyses, in a multilevel approach, the individual, business and social-political evaluation, consideration and decision processes in the development of the distribution of lead-free ammunition, in particular in public forestry organisations and in the hunting sector in Germany. The discourse-analytical contemplation resulting from three seminars of the Bundesinsititut für Risikobewertung (BfR - The German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment) in Berlin in 2011, 2013 and 2014 describes the development of the controversial discussion in Germany. A content-analytical contemplation of parliamentary involvement with this theme in Germany shows that in the course of 10 years - in spite of conflicts about legislative powers between federal and provincial (Länder) governments - the first political decisions on provincial level regarding use of lead-free rifle ammunition were taken from 2013 onwards. Spring 2016, over 15 years after the broad debate started, the national government submitted a first draft law to the preliminary parliamentary voting process. In the empirical part of the work, in the research field “Employees of public forestry organisations in Germany“ it is ascertained whether the use of lead-free ammunition follows the patterns of Rogers’ diffusion and adoption theory. The outcome of 1,279 completed online questionnaires shows that 58% of the people involved in forestry used lead-free ammunition. A proportion of 20% had tried lead-free ammunition, whereby 22% did not have any experience with it at all. Almost 2/3 of the people questioned are meanwhile obliged to use lead-free ammunition. Although the issue does play a role in the awareness of the people questioned, they do not see lead-free ammunitions as an important innovation for the environment, or it does not correspond to the criteria they apply. Previously specified “Adopter types“ can be distinguished from another by analysis of variance. Contrary to Rogers’ model, the breakdown observed shows a larger group of innovators (15.9%) and a small group of early adopters (5.3%). The midfield is less populated and - together with early and late majorities - only counts for 46.2% as opposed to over 2/3 in the model. The proportion of laggards is almost twice as high as in Rogers’ breakdown, which confirms a resistance against change in the forest enterprises and the hunting sector in the current adoption or diffusion time frame of 15 years so far. Eight guideline-based expert interviews with leading figures from provincial forestry companies or public institutions as well as the federal chairmen of a forest and a hunting organisation complete the quantitative online survey. The assessment of lead-free ammunition as innovation for the environment and what it would mean for the hunt in the forest enteprises essentially differs for the use (or obligation to use) lead-free ammunition, due to the estimated use or the way it works for the forestry sector and the perception of an active or passive pioneering role. Being personally or institutionally concerned is the major driving force for action.

Thesis "Consumer Protection in transport in EU legislation" deals with consumer protection in specific areas. This thesis defined the rights and obligations of air passengers, rail transport, bus and coach transport and consumer protection when traveling by sea and inland waterways. The thesis is also exploring the awareness of EU citizens of their rights by the European Commission - Eurobarometer. Thesis is processed by analysis and comparison of selected judgments of the Court of Justice of the European Union and EU legislation.

Consumer protection is one of the major areas that The European Union focused on in recent years. With regard to the developement in technical communication the distance contracts became more important. This diploma thesis is focused on the distance contracts and the aim is to introduce and compare the legislation of the distance contratcts according to the previous directive 97/7/EC on the protection of consumers in respect of distance contracts and the new directive 2011/83/EU on consumer rights. The diploma thesis introduce shortages of the previous directive, reasons for creation the new directive and changes setting up by the new one. The diploma thesis also analyses chosen judgements of The Court of Justice of the European Union relating to the directive 97/7/ES.

Diplomová práce se zaměřuje na kritické zhodnocení současné energetické politiky Evropské Unie a její dopady na účastníky trhu s energetickými komoditami, především s důrazem na energetické společnosti a koncové spotřebitele.