This thesis examines environmental law as a social technology, using approaches from science and technology studies, including methods for studying controversies as well as actornetwork and technology transfer concepts. Legal technologies, including statutes, regulations, and lawsuits, have become significant participants in United States environmental policy. That policy developed during the twentieth century in response to contrasting concerns about nature (development of natural resources vs. protection of native species and wilderness), along with growing concern about urban environmental issues (such as air and water quality, and waste disposal). The environmental movement that began after World War II gained power with provisions incorporated into 1970s environmental legislation allowing citizens to sue polluting industries and corporations. Opposition to environmentalism developed in the 1980s, as wise use and property rights movements seeking to expand development of natural resources, and an environmental justice movement concerned with issues and constituencies not addressed by mainstream environmental organizations. As a result of that opposition, the environmental movement in the United States has strengthened, and broadened both the memberships in varied organizations and the range of issues addressed. A case study of the Bronx Community Paper Company provides an example of the current state of environmental law and policy in the United States, and the limited ability of legal technologies to resolve increasingly complex environmental controversies. / Master of Science

The thesis aims to describe Anselm's years as prior and abbot and his archiepiscopal career. Analyzing the years spent in the Norman monastery of Bec as a missionary and teacher in its school, the thesis notes the amount of knowledge and experiences which prepared Anselm for his archiepiscopal career. His intellectual qualities and theories are examined as well as some of his highly influential theological texts. Anselm also strove to spread the reforms of his teacher and mentor at Bec and his predecessor at Canterbury, Archbishop Lanfranc. Anselm's following archiepiscopal career spanned the reigns of two kings: William Rufus and Henry I. The study proves that the policies and attitudes of both rulers were quite different. Under the reign of William Rufus, Anselm tried to bring his ideal theoretical state of things into actuality, but the king resisted everything he attempted to do. With his death, Anselm's position changed rapidly and dramatically. Henry, on the other hand, excelled in the ability to work out a compromise. In the end, Anselm's archiepiscopal career concluded with cooperation between king and archbishop.

Work focuses on representation of opponents in first-person shooter video games. It aims to discover tools, which developers of video games use to choose specific enemies for their games and in which way they present them. First-person shooters are used for this purposes because players have closest visual contact with opponents in this genre. The aim of this work is to describe most typical opponents in video games and to find out why this exact enemies are usualyy the most portrayed. Special attention is paid to video games which used original attitude for creating enemies. Work than focuses on most frequent stereotypes in opponents presentation, mostly racial and national, which are used by developers and what function they have. Than it gives room for critics of such stereotypes and tries to estimate if these critics can result in some changes in the future. Video games which created controversy by representation of specific enemies are subject of next topic. These games often put players in position of moral dilemma. On the base of research from literature and analysis of video games this work focuses on main reasons of representation of concrete enemies and what emotional impact it can have on players.

The purpose of this work is to characterize the problem of semantic presuppositions generated by definite descriptions in subject-position in the light of a reassessment of the semantic framework of the Russell/Strawson controversy and analyze what would be the early and the later Wittgenstein's solution to such a problem. In the first part, the Russell/Strawson controversy is characterized. On the basis of Strawson's account, a general concept of semantic presupposition against which other theories may be tested is constructed. This allows the formulation of the problem above mentioned. Further analysis of the accounts involved reveals that Frege's concept of a 'semantic prerequisite' generated by definite descriptions in subject-position is an instance of the general concept. But Frege also held the view that simple proper names do not generate semantic prerequisites. The Fregean referential dualism suggests that the Russell/Strawson controversy, as far as only these authors' accounts are involved, is undecidable at the purely semantic level. This is the semantic framework against which Wittgenstein's philosophies are tested in the second part. The "Tractatus" adopts a modified version of the Russellian Theory of Descriptions. Even so, the Tractarian account seems to be ultimately equivalent to Russell's. Further analysis reveals that the doctrine of simple signs in isolation, but not its conjunction with the picture theory, is consistent with the general concept of semantic presupposition. The "Investigations " adopts the programmatic principle of searching for the use of the words. But the question about the 'referring use' of descriptions in a specific language-game is consistent with, and in the spirit of, the "Investigations". The framework of the question involves the appeal to the Kripkean notions of 'semantic referent' and 'speaker's referent'. The analysis of the referring use in the language-game of reporting an event reveals that the later Wittgenstein tends to reject the semantic concept of presupposition. Further analysis reveals that he would tend to reject Russell's Theory of Descriptions and most of the variants of the pragmatic concept. The analysis seems to confirm that the Russell/Strawson dispute is idle at the purely semantic level. Even so, the later Wittgenstein's account of language is such that it is possible to imagine some particular language-games in which relationships occur that bear some analogies with the one of semantic presupposition.

Esta pesquisa teórica investiga a controvérsia acadêmica sobre avaliações em larga escala no Brasil, sistematizando as posições/argumentos desse debate na forma de um continuum argumentativo, além de delinear tensões discursivas e contextuais que circundam e perpassam a polêmica sobre a avaliação da escola básica. A revisão de literatura pertinente e a apreciação dos discursos acadêmicos gravitantes da temática, do ponto de vista teórico-metodológico, orientaram-se pela noção de polifonia (BAKHTIN, 2005; MAINGUENEAU, 2002; CHARAUDEAU; MAINGUENEAU, 2016). Ou seja, pelo esforço de abordar, de forma simultânea e equipolente, as várias vozes que se pronunciam diversamente sobre o tema das avaliações em larga escala no Brasil. Desse modo, a incursão teórica segue por três eixos de sistematização/interpretação: 1) a reconstituição da trama histórica do desenvolvimento do aparelho de avaliação externa no Brasil, por meio de uma periodização interpretativa que põe em relevo as tensões e disputas centrais que incidiram nas discussões entre acadêmicos e especialistas da avaliação; 2) o mapeamento dos conceitos abrangentes (categorias-chave da problemática educacional estreitamente vinculadas à esfera da avaliação), evidenciado tensões potencialmente constitutivas da controvérsia da avaliação; 3) o desvelamento do embate ideológico-discursivo no campo da avaliação e seu desdobramento políticopedagógico em diferentes zonas argumentativas - gradações de um continumm com diferentes graus de apoio e recusa às avaliações externas e em larga escala. Por fim, ao relacionar as tensões discursivas geradoras e as tensões contextuais constitutivas da controvérsia em questão, propõe-se uma formulação teórica exploratória sobre a gênese do continuum argumentativo, com potencial de orientar possíveis desdobramentos teóricos e empíricos da investigação aqui empreendida. / This theoretical research investigates the academic controversy about large scale assessments in Brazil, systematizing the views/arguments of this debate in a form of a continuum argumentation, outlining the discursive and contextual tensions that surround and permeate the polemics about large scale assessment in basic school. The relevant review of the literature and the appraisal of academic discourses about the theme, from the theoretical-methodological point of view, were supported by the notion of polyphony (BAKHTIN, 2005; MAINGUENEAU, 2002; CHARAUDEAU; MAINGUENEAU, 2016). By the effort to approach, simultaneously and in an equipollent way, the different voices that are expressed diversely about the theme of large scale assessment in Brazil. Therefore, the theoretical incursion is in accordance with three pillars of systematization/interpretation: 1) The reconstruction of a historical plot about the development of external assessment apparatus in Brazil, by means of interpreting the periods that highlight the tensions and central disputes in the discussions between scholars and experts in assessment; 2) The mapping of broad concepts ( key-categories of the educational problematic closely linked to the sphere of evaluation), highlight tensions that potentially constitute the controversies of assessment.; 3) the unveiling of the ideologically-discursive conflict in the field of assessment and its political-pedagogical unfolding in different argumentative areas gradations of a continuum with different degrees of support and the refusal of external assessment in large scale. Finally, in relating the discursive tensions generators and the constitutive contextual tensions of the controversy at issue, an exploratory theoretical formulation is proposed about the genesis of the continuum argumentative, with the purpose to guide possible theoretical and empirical unfolding of investigation here pursued.

Nesta tese analisamos as nuances que o conceito de leste assumiu nas fontes escritas da Escandinávia e Islândia dos séculos XIII e XIV. De início, procedemos na observação de como a historiografia referente às interações entre povos da Escandinávia e do Nordeste Europeu produziu extenso debate de implicações políticas, conhecido como a Controvérsia Normanista. Neste capítulo salientamos também os impactos que o estudo do medievo teve nos tempos contemporâneos. A seguir, efetuamos uma síntese baseada na interpretação da Cultura Material sobre os movimentos escandinavos a leste no período viking, que forneceram material para os próprios historiadores e autores na Escandinávia e Islândia dos séculos XIII e XIV. Até então demonstramos que, a despeito da Controvérsia Normanista, há evidência convincente e suficiente para demonstrar que a presença escandinava no leste foi deveras significativa. Os capítulos posteriores centralizam-se na análise das fontes primárias. Dividimo-las em fontes que apresentam material cartográfico e geográfico, obras de cunho historiográficoe sagas voltadas ao entretenimento; como seleção de obras representativas de tais grandes grupos analisamos o Mappamundi islandês Gks 1812, 4to, 5v-6r., o prólogo da Edda Menor, a Heimskringla, a Gesta Danorum e a rvar-Odds Saga. A análise dessas fontes demonstrou que entre o século XIII e o XIV ocorreu na produção escrita escandinava uma bifurcação entre o conhecimento produzido com objetivos de instrução e aquele com intuitos de entretenimento. O uso do leste na primeira vertente é livresco, inserindo muito do saber acumulado do Medievo Ocidental e ressignificando o leste segundo parâmetros das terras bíblicas e dos autores clássicos. Nas fontes de intuito de entretenimento o uso do leste é também ressignificado, mas desta feita de acordo com material mais ligado à cultura e às narrativas populares, empregando o leste na materialização de temas do fantástico e da mitologia. / In this thesis we analyze the nuances assumed by the concept of east in the primary sources of Scandinavia and Iceland in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.Initially, we proceeded in the observation of how the historiography related to Northern and Eastern Europe have produced extensive debate of political implications, named the Normanist Controversy. In thischapter we have stressed also the impacts that Medieval Studies may assume in Contemporary milieu.Hereafter we build a synthesis based on Material Culture -in the archaeological sense -of the Scandinavian movements in East in the Viking Age, interactions that already had provided inspiration for authors inXIII-XIVs. At this point we have showed successfully that there is enough evidence to demonstrate the relevance of the Scandinavian presence in medieval Eastern Europe.The later chapters deal with the analysis of several kindsof primary sources. We have gathered and organized it in geographical and cartographical works, writings of historiographical nature and entertainment aimed sagas.As a selection of representative works of such large groups we studied the Icelandic Mappamundi of manuscript Gks 1812, 4to, 5v-6r, the Prologue of Edda Minor, the Heimskringla,the Gesta Danorum and the rvar-Odds SagaThe analysis of these sources showed that between the thirteenth and the fourteenth century a bifurcation occurred in Scandinavian written sources between the knowledge produced for the purposes of instruction andthe one with the goal of entertainment.The use of the East in the first group is highly scholar, re-elaborating the East in the light of accumulated knowledge of the Western Middle Ages, as well as redefining it within parameters coherent with christian and classical authors.The sources aimed to entertainment, however, employed the eastern areas in connection with a different kind of knowledge. Folk narratives and popular lore gained prominence in the reshaping of eastern region, transforming it in anauspicious place to the materialization of the fantastic and the mythical.

O escopo da presente pesquisa é mapear a controvérsia pública sobre o uso da ayahuasca no Brasil. Primeiramente, foco a literatura acadêmica e a forma como a história da ayahuasca é abordada ao longo de três décadas de debate. Em seguida, exploro um universo documental amplo que inclui produções acadêmicas, midiáticas, políticas públicas, documentos institucionais de entidades ayahuasqueiras e produções de integrantes dessas instituições para elaborar um mapeamento da controvérsia pública sobre a ayahuasca no Brasil e seus desdobramentos. Por fim, partindo de um trabalho etnográfico realizado no Centro Pronto Socorro Espiritual Raimundo Irineu Serra, problematizo as formas de apresentação, justificação das práticas e construção de legitimidade no espaço público de uma instituição que faz uso da ayahuasca. / The scope of this research is to map the public controversy concerning the use o ayahuasca. First, I focus on the academic literature and the ways which the history of ayahuasca is covered over three decades of debate. Then I explore a wide documental universe which includes academic productions, media, public policy, institutional documents of ayahuasca entities and productions of members of those institutions - to develop a map of the public controversy concerning ayahuasca in Brazil and its aftermath. Finally, based on an ethnographic study, conducted at Centro Pronto Socorro Espiritual Raimundo Irineu Serra, I analyze the forms of presentation, justification of practices and the construction of legitimacy in the public space of an institution that makes use of ayahuasca.

El objetivo de la presente investigación es exponer y testar una hipótesis exegética y filosófica sobre el método de división propuesto por Platón en el Fedro. Según mi hipótesis, este método de división visa resolver la controversia a través de la formulación de argumentos y contra-argumentos que examinan la consistencia de definiciones opuestas sobre un mismo asunto, con el fin de determinar cuál es su definición correcta. Para esto, en el primer capítulo explico las principales nociones del método del Fedro y describo el modus operandi de este método. En el segundo y en el tercer capítulo, testo el modus operandi antes descrito a través de la evidencia textual del Fedro. / The aim of the present research is to expose and test an exegetical and philosophical hypothesis about Plato´s division method in his dialogue Phaedrus. According to my hypothesis, Plato´s division is a method that aims to resolve controversies via the formulation of arguments and counterarguments that test the consistency of opposed definitions. Consequently, the method ends with a correct definition. To achieve this aim, in chapter 1, I explain the principal notions of the method and describe the modus operandi of this method. In chapter 2 and chapter 3, I submit to critical examination the aforementioned modus operandi through the textual evidence founded in Phaedrus.

Submitted by Silvana Teresinha Dornelles Studzinski (sstudzinski) on 2015-05-28T14:32:39Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Luiz Davi Mazzei .pdf: 793792 bytes, checksum: 4b2e144e136353e4c3ab7238c81cbe9f (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-28T14:32:39Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Luiz Davi Mazzei .pdf: 793792 bytes, checksum: 4b2e144e136353e4c3ab7238c81cbe9f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Nenhuma / Esta tese analisa a posição de dois filósofos, Paul Feyerabend e Marcelo Dascal, representativos do pensamento filosófico ocidental do final do século XX e início do século XXI, sobre a racionalidade. A questão da racionalidade é tema recorrente na filosofia da ciência, desde Aristóteles até os filósofos contemporâneos. Paul Feyerabend faz críticas à ideia de uma racionalidade única e, especialmente, ao racionalismo crítico como a versão mais recente dos racionalismos subjacentes à concepção de ciência. Marcelo Dascal também critica a ideia de que haja uma única forma de racionalidade da ciência. Embora ambos critiquem o racionalismo, exibem uma divergência marcante: enquanto Feyerabend, em sua critica desfralda a bandeira do irracionalismo em oposição ao racionalismo, Dascal amplia o entendimento de racionalidade, distinguindo duas racionalidades: a ideia da racionalidade como tradicionalmente entendida, baseada na demonstração – denominada por ele racionalidade hard– e a ideia de racionalidade que dá conta do provável, do possível e de nossas escolhas entre alternativas – a racionalidade soft.A última dá suporte à sua teoria das controvérsias (que inclui a tipologia: ‘discussão’, ‘disputa’ e ‘controvérsia’), vista por Dascal como motor do desenvolvimento científico. A tese proposta é a de que se Feyerabend houvesse conhecido o conceito de racionalidade soft de Dascal, poderia não ter recorrido ao irracionalismo e tampouco teria ficado preso à dicotomia racionalidade hard-irracionalidade, tendo sido ele um crítico das dicotomias, assim como Dascal o é. Em apoio à tese proposta, examinam-se os argumentos dos filósofos em torno a pontos temáticos centrais, reconhecendo como possível um debate imaginário entre os dois filósofos, sob a forma de uma controvérsia. A análise desses argumentos parte das críticas que ambos fazem ao racionalismo e as implicações dessa crítica para a visão de ciência de cada filósofo. As interações polêmicas (‘discussão’, ‘disputa’ e ‘controvérsia’) de Dascal e as ‘trocas abertas’ e ‘trocas fechadas’ de Feyerabend revelam pontos de uma plataforma comum de análise. As trocas guiadas, tal como as discussões, se desenvolvem a partir do compartilhamento de pressupostos e da adoção, em comum acordo, das regras que irão orientar o debate. As trocas abertas, assim como as controvérsias, permitem a exploração de alternativas, as regras não são fixadas a priori, mas vão se construindo ao longo do debate. O contexto tem influencia nesse tipo de interação ao mesmo tempo em que é influenciado por ela. O modelo das controvérsias ou das trocas abertas apoia-se em uma posição filosófica pragmática, fugindo das conotações geralmente atribuídas a essa posição e tem implicações éticas que transcendem o âmbito da ciência. Esse modelo baseia-se em um modelo dialético novo, em uma dialética da tolerância, aberta à exploração de alternativas e pautada no respeito ao outro, à sua capacidade cognitiva e de deliberação para realizar um empreendimento comum. / This thesis analyses the arguments on Rationality of two philosophers, Paul Feyerabend and Marcelo Dascal, who represent ideas of western philosophy in the late 20th century and beginning of the 21th century. The argument of Rationality has been a recurrent idea regarding the Philosophy of Science, from Aristotle up to current date. On his work, Paul Feyerabend criticizes both concepts of a single rationality and the critical rationality as a contemporary version of the rationalities underlying the conception of science. As Paul Feyerabend, Marcelo Dascal also criticizes the notion of the existence of a single idea for science rationalism, but both of them diverge. While Feyerabend defends the idea of irrationalism as opposed to rationalism, Dascal expands the understanding of rationality, distinguishing two modes: the traditional, based on demonstration, called hard rationality and the idea of rationality based on the probable, and our choices between both alternatives, called soft rationality. The latter supports of his theory of controversies (including the typology: ‘discussion’, ‘dispute’ and ‘controversy’), is seen by Dascal as the engine of scientific development. The thesis proposes that, if Feyerabend have had known the concept of Dascal’s soft rationality, he might not have had to resort to irrationalism and would not have been stuck to the dichotomy of the hard rationality - irrationality. In support of the thesis, the central themes from the arguments of both philosophers are examined, recognizing a possible imaginary debate between them, under the shape of a controversy. The analysis of the arguments is based on their critique of rationalism and their implications to a vision of science. Dascal’s interactions (‘discussion’, ‘dispute’ and ‘controversy’) and Feyerabend’s ‘open exchange’ and ‘closed exchange’ reveals a common platform for analysis. The exchanges, as well as discussions, develop based on sharing the assumptions and rules that oriented the debate. The open exchanges, as well as the controversies, allowed the exploration of alternatives, the rules were not a priori, but evolved with the debate. The context influenced that type of interaction andwas also influenced by it. The controversy model or the open exchanges model is based on a pragmatic philosophy, avoiding the usual notions attached to this position and implies ethics that are beyond the realms of science. This model is based on a new dialectic, on dialectic of tolerance and it opens to explore alternatives based on respect and common understanding.

Dans les coulisses des compétitions handisports de haut-niveau se déroule une épreuve inaccessible au regard du public : le processus de classification. L’expertise, impérative pour attribuer une classe à chaque sportif se matérialise par une série d’opérations effectuées aussi bien par les classificateurs que par les principaux protagonistes : observer, mesurer, quantifier, qualifier, comparer, protester, délibérer… Cette quête d’objectivité s’organise dans plusieurs arènes (vestiaires, Bureau Exécutif du Comité International Paralympique, Commission de Classification, laboratoires). Mais l’impression de stabilité du dispositif contraste avec les témoignages et les observations visant les protocoles d’examen des corps. Les dirigeants cherchent donc à entretenir l’intérêt de la compétition pour les pratiquants et les spectateurs. La complexité du processus apparaît comme un polyptyque évolutif dans lequel les acteurs tentent de mettre de l’ordre et dont le sociologue s’attache à rassembler les pièces éparpillées, tel un commissaire d’exposition.La recherche du langage sociologique le plus approprié permet d’analyser l’adoption, l’entretien, ou l’abandon de la croyance dans l’efficacité du dispositif dont l’enjeu final est la crédibilité des Jeux Paralympiques. Comment est rendue possible et acceptable la mise en équivalence de sportifs aux corps uniques ? Comment les acteurs œuvrent à transformer ou à maintenir en l’état un dispositif qui sépare des individus en même temps qu’il les regroupe? L’enquête permet de comprendre les conditions d’existence du handisport et du sport adapté de compétition et contribue à la réflexion sur les frontières entre les individus. / Backstage of disabled sports competitions high-level event takes place an inaccessible trial to public sight : the classification process. Expertise, imperative to assign a class to each athlete is materialized by a series of operations performed by both classifiers and the main protagonists: observe, measure, quantify, qualify, compare, protest, deliberate ... This quest for objectivity is organized in several arenas (locker rooms, the Executive Board of the International Paralympic Committee, Committee on Classification, laboratories). But the impression of stability of the device contrast with testimonies and observations criticizing the review body protocols. Therefore, institutional leaders are seeking to maintain the interest of competition for practitioners and spectators. The complexity of the process appears to be an evolving polyptych in which actors attempt to bring order and that sociologist try to reassemble the pieces scattered, like a curator. The search for the most appropriate sociological language use to analyze the adoption, maintenance, or abandonment of the belief in the effectiveness of the device whose final issue is the credibility of the Paralympic Games. How is possible and acceptable equity with so unique sports body? How actors work to transform or maintain a device that separate or aggregate individuals in the same time? The survey allows us to understand the conditions of disable sport and adapted sport competition and contributes to the debate on the boundaries between individuals.