L’évolution convergente des formes de croissance est un phénomène fondamental reliant l’écologie et l’évolution des plantes. Remarquablement illustré dans plusieurs systèmes insulaires, ce phénomène n’a jamais été identifié en Nouvelle-Calédonie, pourtant connue pour la richesse et l’originalité de sa flore. Par une approche combinant architecture des plantes, traits fonctionnels, taxonomie, phylogénie et données environnementales, cette thèse analyse l’histoire évolutive de la monocaulie, une forme de croissance mal connue, en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Les monocaules sont des plantes autoportantes ligneuses dont les fonctions majeures sont assurées par une seule tige apparente. En Nouvelle-Calédonie, elles sont représentées par 182 espèces dicotylédones appartenant à 41 genres et 30 familles et sont gravement menacées d’extinction. L’évolution répétée de la monocaulie en Nouvelle-Calédonie, issue d’au moins 31 événements d’apparition, est l’un des cas les plus remarquables de convergence en milieu insulaire. Dans le genre Atractocarpus, la monocaulie est apparue récemment deux à trois fois via diverses réductions des branches en inflorescences, montrant l’importance des processus hétérochroniques dans l’évolution des formes de croissance. La monocaulie est fortement corrélée à plusieurs traits démontrant des contraintes majeures dans la coordination fonctionnelle. L’évolution de la monocaulie est fortement associée aux forêts denses humides et au substrat ultramafique, et semble avoir contribué à la diversification des lignées par des phénomènes de partitionnement de niche. La remarquable convergence de la monocaulie en Nouvelle-Calédonie peut s’expliquer par quatre hypothèses majeures liées (i) à la structure particulière des forêts denses humides (en lien avec les cyclones) favorisant l’exploration unidirectionnelle de l’espace, (ii) aux contraintes édaphiques liées aux substrats ultramafiques favorisant la paupérisation architecturale, (iii) à l’absence historique de grands brouteurs, auxquels les monocaules sont particulièrement sensibles, et (iv) à la persistance des forêts denses humides lors des épisodes glaciaires (servant de refuges pour ces espèces sensibles) et leur expansion post-glaciaire (fournissant de nombreuses opportunités écologiques). / The convergent evolution in growth habit is a fundamental phenomenon linking plant ecology and evolution. Remarkably illustrated in island biotas, this phenomenon has never been identified in the original and megadiverse New Caledonian biodiversity hotspot. Through an approach combining plant architecture, functional traits, taxonomy, phylogeny and environmental data, this thesis analyses the evolutionary history of the scarcely known monocaulous growth habit in New Caledonia. Monocauls are self-supporting woody plants whose cardinal functions rely on a single visible stem. In New Caledonia, they are represented by 182 dicotyledonous species belonging to 41 genera and 30 families and are critically endangered. The repeated evolution of the monocaulie in New Caledonia, resulting from at least 31 independent events, is one of the most remarkable cases of convergence in insular environments. In the genus Atractocarpus (Rubiaceae), monocauly evolved recently two to three times through branch reductions into inflorescences, emphasizing the importance of heterochronic processes in the evolution of growth habit. Monocauly is strongly correlated with several traits illustrating major constraints in functional coordination. The evolution of monocauly is strongly associated with rainforests and ultramafic substrate, and seems to have contributed to the diversification of lineages by niche partitioning. The remarkable convergence toward monocauly in New Caledonia can be explained by four major hypotheses: (i) the structural features of rainforests (related to cyclone frequency and intensity) favoring unidirectional exploration of space, (ii) the edaphic constraints associated with ultramafic substrate favoring architectural pauperization, (iii) the historical absence of large native browsers to which monocauls are particularly sensitive, and (iv) the persistence of rainforest during – and spread-out after – glacial episodes that served as refugia and further provided ecological opportunities.

O comportamento do escoamento supersônico no interior de bocais convergente-divergente retangulares é investigado numericamente, comparando-se quatro bocais com diferentes seções divergentes, com a mesma razão de aspecto AR=1.14 e mesma relação áreas da saída e da garganta dos bocais NAR=1.43. Os bocais são submetidos a diferentes pressões de admissão do fluido de trabalho, mantendo-se a relação entre a pressão de admissão e de descarga constante NPR=5. As simulações consideram o escoamento em regime permanente, compressível, viscoso, com abordagem baseada na massa específica (abordagem acoplada) , juntamente com o modelo de turbulência − /SST. A qualidade dos resultados é medida empregando-se três níveis de refino da discretização do domínio computacional, observandose a ordem de convergência e o índice de convergência de malhas GCI. Os resultados numéricos mostram que o número de Mach e a temperatura do fluido de trabalho independem da pressão de admissão, ao contrário do comportamento da pressão local e da massa específica. As propriedades do escoamento são fortemente dependentes da variação da geometria, e a variação do ângulo da seção divergente provoca uma mudança direta do número de Mach e inversa da pressão, da temperatura e da massa específica do escoamento no interior dessa seção. As simulações são comparadas com os resultados da teoria isentrópica e mostram que a linha sônica é deslocada do centro geométrico da garganta dos bocais para cada geometria simulada. A comparação com a teoria e com dados experimentais mostra desvios inferiores a 6x10-3 %. O uso do modelo de turbulência − / SST é capaz de resolver o escoamento com boa precisão, prevendo bem seu perfil de velocidades, as ondas de expansão de Prandtl-Meyer, juntamente com as interações dessas ondas com a camada limite. / The behavior of the supersonic flow inside rectangular convergent-divergent nozzle is investigated numerically by comparing four nozzles with different divergent sections, with a common aspect ratio AR=1.14, and the same nozzle exit-to-throat area ratios NAR=1.43. Nozzles are subject to several working fluid inlet pressures, maintaining a constant pressure ratio NPR=5. Simulations assume the flow in steady state, compressible, viscous, using a coupled approach with the turbulence model − /SST. The quality of results is measured by employing three refining levels of the computational domain discretization, observing the order of convergence and the grid convergence index GCI. Numerical results show that the Mach number and the temperature of the working fluid are independent of the inlet pressure, unlike the behavior of local pressure and the density. Flow properties are strongly dependent on the geometry variation, and the change on the angle of divergent section causes a direct effect on the Mach number and inverse on the pressure, the temperature and the density of the flow in this section. Simulations are compared to the results of the isentropic theory and show that the sonic line is offset from the geometric center of the throat nozzle, for each simulated geometry. Results from this work are compared to experimental and theoretical data and show deviations below 6x10-3 %. The − / SST turbulence model is able to solve the flow with good accuracy, and predicts its velocity profile, Prandtl-Meyer expansion waves, and their interactions with the boundary layer.

As plantas têm diversos modos de resolver problemas como a escassez de recursos, o ataque de herbívoros ou a perda de água. O modo como uma planta resolve um desses problemas pode ser considerado uma tática e o conjunto dessas táticas constitui uma estratégia ecológica. As estratégias só são possíveis porque as plantas têm uma série de atributos que têm um efeito direto no desempenho ecológico dessas plantas. Esses atributos funcionais, portanto, refletem as estratégias ecológicas das espécies. Com base nessa lógica, descrevemos as 157 espécies de árvore dominantes de uma floresta de terra firme da Amazônia Central segundo treze atributos funcionais (foliares, vegetativos e regenerativos). Nosso objetivo era descomplicar a ecologia de florestas tropicais, até então muito focada na identidade das espécies. Como essas florestas têm muitas espécies e a densidade dessas espécies é muito baixa, os padrões de composição de espécies das comunidades são muito complexos e pouco claros. Com a mudança do foco para a diversidade de estratégias, conseguimos desvendar um padrão interessante de dominância de tipos de estratégia: apesar de haver onze tipos diferentes na floresta estudada, 61% das espécies são de um só tipo. Além de ter o maior número de espécies, o tipo 1 respondeu por 52% da biomassa vegetal da floresta, o que indica que essa é a estratégia ótima. No entanto, como a dominância relativa não varia muito entre as espécies, é possível que o benefício gerado pela adoção da estratégia ótima seja compensado pelo número de espécies que adotam essa estratégia. Concluímos que os padrões encontrados na distribuição das dominâncias entre as espécies e entre os tipos são resultado principalmente das peculiaridades do conjunto de espécies, em especial a grande quantidade de espécies dos tipos 1 e 2. Mas como tantas espécies parecidas podem ter se originado? Para responder essa pergunta, testamos três hipóteses: 1) a taxa de especiação foi maior do que a taxa de divergência ecológica; 2) as espécies convergiram recentemente ou evoluíram paralelamente; e 3) razões alométricas ou demandas conflitantes entre os atributos restringiram a diversidade de estratégias. Encontramos evidências parciais que corroboram essas três hipóteses. Como a diversidade filogenética foi menor do que a diversidade ecológica, as espécies estudadas podem ser fruto de especiação recente, o que é compatível com a teoria dos refúgios. Segundo essa teoria, as espécies teriam se formado em refúgios do Pleistoceno durante as glaciações, o que deve ter proporcionado altas taxas de especiação alopátrica, não necessariamente acompanhada por divergência ecológica. Por outro lado, o efeito positivo do sinal filogenético na diversidade de estratégias revela que os antepassados das espécies atuais eram mais diferentes entre si do que as espécies atuais. Isso indica que houve uma convergência recente de estratégias, o que está de acordo com a hipótese do Lago Amazonas, que cobriu a área estudada até o início do Pleistoceno. O solo rico em silte da área estudada reforça a suspeita de que o leito desse lago deve ter fornecido uma ótima oportunidade ecológica para as espécies de terra firme. Finalmente, encontramos evidência de que a diversidade das estratégias ligadas aos atributos foliares é severamente limitada por demandas conflitantes e razões alométricas. / Plants have several ways to solve their problems such as resource limitation, herbivory damage or water loss. How a plant solves one of these problems can be considered a tactic and all the tactics together constitutes an ecological strategy. The strategies are possible only because plants have a series of traits that directly affect ecological performance of these plants. These functional traits, therefore, reflect the ecological strategies of species. Based on this rationale, we described the 157 dominant tree species in a terra firme forest of Central Amazon according to thirteen functional traits (among leaf, vegetative and regenerative traits). Our goal was to simplify the ecology of tropical forests, so far focused on species identity. Since these forests have a lot of species that are in general very rare, the patterns of species composition of these communities are very complex and unclear. By shifting focus to diversity of strategies, instead identities, we unveiled an interesting pattern of dominance among the strategy types: Although there are eleven different types of strategies in the forest studied, 61% of the species were of only one type. In addition to a greater number of species, only one type responded by 52% of the tree biomass of the forest sampled, which indicates that this is the optimal strategy. However, as the dominance does not vary considerably between species, it is possible that the benefit generated by the use of the optimal strategy is offset by the number of species who also use this strategy. We conclude that the neutral pattern found in the distribution of dominances among species and the dominance pattern found among the types are mainly the result of peculiarities of the species set, in particular the large number of the two most common strategies. But how so many similar species can have been originated? To answer to this question, we tested three hypotheses: 1) the rate of speciation was greater than the rate of ecological divergence; 2) species converged recently or evolved parallelly; and 3) allometric relations or tradeoffs between traits restricted the diversity of strategies. We found evidences that partially support these three hypotheses. As phylogenetic diversity was lower than ecological diversity, it is possible that the species studied resulted from recent speciation, which is compatible with the refuge theory. According to this theory, several species would have originated in Pleistocene refuges during the glaciations, which might have enhanced rates of allopatric speciation that was not necessarily followed by ecological divergence. On the other hand, the positive effect of phylogenetic signal in strategy diversity reveals that current species ancestors were ecologically more different from each other than current species are. This indicates that there was a recent convergence of strategies, which is consistent with the hypothesis of Lake Amazonas, which covered the area studied until the early Pleistocene. The large relative amount of silt in the soil of the studied area strengthens the suspect that the bed of this Lake should have provided a great ecological opportunity for species that were adapted to drier and poorer soils. Finally, we found evidence that only the diversity of strategies linked to leaf traits is severely limited by tradeoffs and allometric relations.

In recent years, meta-analytic reviews have estimated validities for the use of personality scales in the prediction of job performance from an array of empirical studies. A variety of personality measures were used in the original studies, and procedures and decisions concerning the categorization of these measures into Big Five personality factors have differed among reviewers. An underlying assumption of meta-analysis is that the predictors across included studies are essentially the same, as is the criterion. If this is not the case, then problems arise for both theoretical reasons and practical applications. If predictors that are not highly correlated are combined in a meta-analysis, then the theoretical understanding of antecedents and consequents of the predictors will be clouded. Further, combining predictors that are not essentially the same may obscure different relations between predictors and criteria, that is, test may operate as a moderator. To meet the assumption of similarity, systematic methods of categorizing personality scales are advised. Two indicators of scale commensurability are proposed: 1) high correlations among predictor scales and 2) similar patterns of correlations between predictor scales and job-related criteria. In the current study, the similarity of the most commonly used personality scales in organizational contexts was assessed based on these two indicators. First, meta-analyses of correlations between scales were conducted. Second, subgroup meta-analyses of criterion-related validity were examined, with specific personality scale and criterion as moderators. Correlations between criterion-related validity and certain sample characteristics were also conducted to determine if sample characteristics act as moderators of validity. Additionally, an examination of personality scale reliabilities was conducted. Results reveal that assumptions of similarity among personality measures may not be entirely met. Whereas meta-analyzed reliability and criterion-related validity coefficients seldom differed greatly, scales of the "same" construct were only moderately correlated in many cases. Although these results suggest that previous meta-analytic results concerning reliability and criterion-related validity are generalizable across tests, questions remain about the similarity of personality construct conceptualization and operationalization. Further research into comprehensive measurement of the predictor space is suggested.

Ce travail de thèse est basé sur l'étude des déformations dans les matériaux à l'échelle nanométrique. En effet, depuis une dizaine voire une quinzaine d'années, le développement de nouveaux matériaux structuraux ou destinés à l'industrie de la microélectronique nécessite la maîtrise des phénomènes de déformation à une telle échelle. La demande de caractérisation se trouve donc en forte croissance, avec des contraintes de plus en plus forte en termes de résolution spatiale et de sensibilité en déformation. La mise au point et/ou l'amélioration de techniques répondant à ces critères est donc nécessaire. Le microscope électronique en transmission étant l'un des seuls instruments capables de mesurer quantitativement des déformations à l'échelle nanométrique, quatre différentes techniques liées à cet appareil ont été étudiées : la technique des moirés, la diffraction en faisceau convergent, la nanodiffraction et l'holographie en champ sombre. La disponibilité du microscope de dernière génération FEI Titan a permis d'obtenir des résultats marquants pour chacune de ces techniques. Les quatre techniques étudiées font l'objet d'une étude poussée sur leur résolution, leur sensibilité en déformation, leurs limites d'utilisation, leur mode d'acquisition et les contraintes qu'elles imposent dans la préparation d'échantillons. Ainsi, la technique des moirés possède une résolution de l'ordre de la vingtaine de nanomètre avec une sensibilité de 4.10^-4 mais nécessite des échantillons particuliers. La diffraction en faisceau convergent est la technique possédant la meilleure résolution spatiale (1 à 2 nm) combinée à une excellente sensibilité en déformation (2.10^-4). Cependant, l'inhomogénéité du champ de déplacement dans l'épaisseur de l'échantillon, phénomène très présent dans les lames minces, rend cette méthode difficile à utiliser de façon courante. La nanodiffraction est probablement la technique la plus facile à mettre en place et s'applique à la plus grande partie des matériaux ou objets. Elle possède une résolution intéressante (jusqu'à 3 nm) mais une sensibilité en déformation limitée à 6.10^-4 dans le meilleur des cas. Pour finir, l'holographie en champ sombre, technique très récente, offre une bonne résolution (autour de 4 ou 5 nm) avec une excellente sensibilité en déformation (2.10^-4). Ces quatre techniques sont comparées entre elles sur des échantillons le permettant.

<p>This thesis uses geodetic satellite data to measure present-day crustal deformation in the Zagros fold-thrust belt (SW Iran). Geodetic-type measurements are also used in down-scaled models that simulate the surface deformations seen in convergent settings like the Zagros fold-thrust belt.</p><p>Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements of three surveys between 1998 and 2001 indicate 9 ± 3 mm/yr and 5 ± 3 mm/yr shortening across the SE and NW Zagros respectively. GPS results show that in addition to the different rates and directions of shortening on either side of the NS trending Kazerun fault, local along-belt extension occurs to the east. </p><p>Differential SAR interferograms of ERS1 & 2 images between 1992 and 1999 detect 8 ± 4 mm/yr uplift rate across a newly recognized fault in SW Qeshm Island. This can be attributed to a steep imbricate thrust that may still represent the local Zagros deformation front.</p><p>The salt diapirs in the Zagros rise from a source layer that acts as a low-frictional decollement that decouples the deformation of the cover sediments from their basement in the eastern Zagros whereas the cover to the west deforms above a high-friction decollement. Physical models were prepared to simulate cover deformation in the Zagros by shortening a sand pack above adjacent high- and low-frictional decollements (represented by a ductile layer). The strain distributions differed above the two types of decollements; it was more heterogeneous above the salt where local extension in the shortening direction was dominant. A separate work also investigated systematically the role of basal friction on cover deformation in convergent settings. Accurate height measurements of the model surface by laser-scanner indicated a deformation front more distal than usual, particularly in the low-basal frictional models. The volume reduction in our shortened sand models correlated directly with their basal friction.</p>

This thesis uses geodetic satellite data to measure present-day crustal deformation in the Zagros fold-thrust belt (SW Iran). Geodetic-type measurements are also used in down-scaled models that simulate the surface deformations seen in convergent settings like the Zagros fold-thrust belt. Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements of three surveys between 1998 and 2001 indicate 9 ± 3 mm/yr and 5 ± 3 mm/yr shortening across the SE and NW Zagros respectively. GPS results show that in addition to the different rates and directions of shortening on either side of the NS trending Kazerun fault, local along-belt extension occurs to the east. Differential SAR interferograms of ERS1 &amp; 2 images between 1992 and 1999 detect 8 ± 4 mm/yr uplift rate across a newly recognized fault in SW Qeshm Island. This can be attributed to a steep imbricate thrust that may still represent the local Zagros deformation front. The salt diapirs in the Zagros rise from a source layer that acts as a low-frictional decollement that decouples the deformation of the cover sediments from their basement in the eastern Zagros whereas the cover to the west deforms above a high-friction decollement. Physical models were prepared to simulate cover deformation in the Zagros by shortening a sand pack above adjacent high- and low-frictional decollements (represented by a ductile layer). The strain distributions differed above the two types of decollements; it was more heterogeneous above the salt where local extension in the shortening direction was dominant. A separate work also investigated systematically the role of basal friction on cover deformation in convergent settings. Accurate height measurements of the model surface by laser-scanner indicated a deformation front more distal than usual, particularly in the low-basal frictional models. The volume reduction in our shortened sand models correlated directly with their basal friction.

The thesis caters to the demands of the creative industries for products and contents which can be utilized for convergent media usage and cross-marketing strategies. In this regard character design serves as an important element of entertainment franchises since it is a means to produce media content with high recognition value. However, numerous character adaptations in different media formats illustrate that characters who are successful in one medium are not necessarily as successful in another media format. The thesis takes a closer look at characters in the context of media convergence and discusses the main principles of character creation and development. By favoring a heuristic approach which analyzes the aesthetic phenomena of arts and entertainment by the means of theoretical research which is supported by practical examples, the thesis concludes that character development is based on three dimensions which have to be combined in order to create characters which can be utilized for different media formats. In this context the work discusses character creation in writing, visuals and interactive media by focusing on ways which secure the successful transfer of characters into different media formats without a loss of character depth and quality.

One of the best-known structures in Drosophila is the sex comb, an arrangement of modified bristles on the tarsal forelegs of males. This complex, sexually-dimorphic trait shows striking variation among closely related species, although most other aspects of the tarsal bristle pattern have been conserved. I studied the development of the sex comb in the model organism Drosophila melanogaster and six related species. I confirmed that the D. melanogaster sex comb, although longitudinal in the adult, originates in a transverse orientation and rotates during development, and showed that this process occurs through male-specific convergent extension. However, in the species that I examined that have longitudinally-oriented sex combs that extend the full length of the tarsus, including D. ficusphila and two species of the montium subgroup, the sex comb does not rotate, and instead forms from two longitudinal rows that converge during development. Another species of the montium subgroup, D. nikananu, has a sex comb that is convergently similar to D. melanogaster, but forms in a manner typical of its subgroup, showing that very similar combs can be formed through different processes. In all species, there is a strong correlation between the position of the sex comb and the transverse bristle row on the foreleg tarsus just proximal to it. To test whether it is possible to violate this apparent constraint on development, I perturbed the expression of the leg patterning gene dachshund to generate ectopic sex combs in D. melanogaster. I found that while most patterns showed the same correlation, a few circumvent the constraint. I also demonstrated that the ectopic combs were formed non-autonomously and that overexpression of dachshund can transform certain aspects of the sex comb phenotype to resemble the transverse bristles to which they are homologous.

One of the best-known structures in Drosophila is the sex comb, an arrangement of modified bristles on the tarsal forelegs of males. This complex, sexually-dimorphic trait shows striking variation among closely related species, although most other aspects of the tarsal bristle pattern have been conserved. I studied the development of the sex comb in the model organism Drosophila melanogaster and six related species. I confirmed that the D. melanogaster sex comb, although longitudinal in the adult, originates in a transverse orientation and rotates during development, and showed that this process occurs through male-specific convergent extension. However, in the species that I examined that have longitudinally-oriented sex combs that extend the full length of the tarsus, including D. ficusphila and two species of the montium subgroup, the sex comb does not rotate, and instead forms from two longitudinal rows that converge during development. Another species of the montium subgroup, D. nikananu, has a sex comb that is convergently similar to D. melanogaster, but forms in a manner typical of its subgroup, showing that very similar combs can be formed through different processes. In all species, there is a strong correlation between the position of the sex comb and the transverse bristle row on the foreleg tarsus just proximal to it. To test whether it is possible to violate this apparent constraint on development, I perturbed the expression of the leg patterning gene dachshund to generate ectopic sex combs in D. melanogaster. I found that while most patterns showed the same correlation, a few circumvent the constraint. I also demonstrated that the ectopic combs were formed non-autonomously and that overexpression of dachshund can transform certain aspects of the sex comb phenotype to resemble the transverse bristles to which they are homologous.