L'analyse des différents commentaires de "Was ist Aufklärung ?" par Michel Foucault permet de retracer l'émergence d'une conception d'un courage des gouvernés, entre désobéissance et désassujettissement. Un courage dénué de tout psychologisme, mais qui s'affirmerait comme une attitude, une reformulation du rapport que chacun entretient avec soi-même ; un courage qui ne serait plus pensé sur le mode d'une conquête de l'autonomie, confiné aux espaces aménagés de l'obéissance ; un courage enfin qui ne serait pas une vertu de l'occasion, mais une élaboration quotidienne et patiente de soi par soi. Notre premier pas sur la voie du courage consisterait alors en un travail de déprise de soi, et de refus de l'emprise du pouvoir sur la conduite de nos existences. Or, au cœur des problématiques de gouvernement, la vérité apparaît comme le vecteur essentiel du pouvoir. Les procès de Socrate et de Galilée, ainsi que les mythes qui les entourent, laissent entrevoir la manière dont le vrai s'est progressivement imposé comme source unique de l'autorité grâce au platonisme tout d'abord, puis par l'intermédiaire du christianisme. La vérité s'est ainsi vue augmentée d'une dimension nouvelle, « kratogénétique », qui désigne la capacité d'un énoncé à produire des effets de pouvoir dans une configuration stratégique donnée. L'étude des procès de Nuremberg et celui d'Eichmann mettent en lumière l'insuffisance des traditions héroïques, hoplitiques et chrétiennes du courage à produire un appareil conceptuel qui permettrait au sujet de s'affirmer face au pouvoir de sujétion de la vérité et à la démultiplication et la diversification des régimes d'obéissance. L'urgence de notre modernité est de s'extirper du cauchemar de la docilité. C'est pourquoi nous avons dans un dernier temps choisi de faire dialoguer Hannah Arendt et Michel Foucault, à partir de leur relecture critique des concepts machiavéliens tout d'abord, puis en comparant la manière dont ils ont l'un et l'autre ont opéré un retour à l'Antiquité, et à la figure tutélaire de Socrate en particulier : revenir au sujet préchrétien afin de penser un courage sans référence à aucune transcendance, comme fidélité à soi-même et à la manifestation en soi-même de la pluralité humaine, ou comme technique de soi et stylistique de l'existence. / Studying Michel Foucault's commentaries on Kant's "Was ist Aufklärung?" allows to witness the emerging conception of a courage specific to the governed, between disobedience and de-subjection. A courage barren of any psychology, but conceived as an attitude, i.e. a reflection of someone's relationship to its self ; a courage that can't be summed-up as a conquest of autonomy, confined to cautiously designed spaces of obedience ; a courage that isn't an occasional virtue, but a daily routine of exercises by yourself and on yourself. Thus, our first step on the path to courage would translate to an abandonment of our former self, and a refusal of the power's grip on our very existences. Then, at the heart of governing techniques, truth appears as power's essential conduit. Socrates' and Galileo's trials, as well as the myths surrounding them, unveil the way truth progressively became the unique source of authority ; thanks to Platonism at first, then through Christianity. Truth gained a new dimension in the process, which we call "kratogenetic" as it points to the capacity of any proposition to generate effects of power in any given strategic configuration. Our study of the Nuremberg and Eichmann's trials exposes the inability of the heroic, hoplitic and Christian traditions of courage to produce a set of concepts that could allow the subject to assert itself in the face of the subjecting power of truth, and the multiplication and diversification of obedience regimes. The emergency of our time is to extricate ourselves from the nightmare of docility. That is why we have decided at last to initiate a dialog between Hannah Arendt and Michel Foucault, from their critical reworking of Machiavelli's concepts at first, then comparing the way they each got back to the Antiquity in general, and to Socrates as a father-figure in particular : a way to get back to a pre-Christianity subject, in order to conceive a courage without any reference to any transcendence ; a courage conceived either as a loyalty to ourselves and to the manifestation within ourselves of mankind's plurality, or as a technique of the self and a stylization of our existence.

När en individ står upp för vad som är moraliskt rätt och riktigt med risk för negativa sociala konsekvenser benämns det civilkurage. Få studier har ämnat ta reda på vad som föregår ett visat civilkurage. Syftet var att undersöka huruvida samvetsgrannhet och individualism korrelerade med civilkurage. 135 respondenter varav 108 var kvinnor deltog i enkätundersökningen där de ombads bedöma påståenden. Påståendena var hämtade ur tre etablerade skalor; Das Münchner Zivilcourage-instrument, Auckland Individualism Collectivism Scale samt samvetsgrannhet extraherad ur Big Five. Resultatet visade ingen korrelation mellan individualism och civilkurage. Prediktorn samvetsgrannhet kunde inte heller förklara civilkurage. Inte heller verkade utbildningsnivå eller kön ha någon inverkan. Till framtida studier rekommenderas att inkludera övriga dimensioner av Big five samt att undersöka om prediktorerna skulle ge samma utfall gällande hjälpbeteende. Det torde även vara gynnsamt att mäta individualism i annan bemärkelse med tonvikt på unikhet hellre än konkurrens.

Ce mémoire vise à déterminer le rôle de la spiritualité dans la redéfinition de soi après le suicide d’un proche et se propose également d’explorer de nouvelles avenues d’accompagnement en soins spirituels. Les survivants d’un proche suicidé doivent composer avec l’ébranlement de certitudes fondamentales qui non seulement altère la confiance dans la solidité de leurs liens, mais crée un sentiment d’inadéquation devant la vie qui est accentué par la stigmatisation face au suicide. Dans l’exercice de redéfinition de soi, l’individu aura à se réconcilier avec sa profondeur grâce au courage d’être, qui surmonte l’angoisse face à la mort et permet de s’accepter en dépit du désespoir. Nous aurons recours aux ressources de la théologie systématique de Paul Tillich en dialogue avec la psychologie des profondeurs de Carl Gustav Jung.

Moral courage will no longer be an option for Nursing Home Administrators (NHA) to lead ethically with the projections for the future needs of healthcare services and the governmental involvement in containing the costs of care in the United States. The estimated increase in the 65 year and older population over the next 40 years and the accompanying impacts necessitate that healthcare will need to make significant changes from the care and services that currently exist. This growth in population of older adults will also be coupled with increased disability and declining resources. Due to these trends, persons in leadership positions in nursing homes are going to be increasingly faced with balancing competing needs and the equitable distribution of resources. For a leader to be able to function effectively within this healthcare environment requires moral courage in making the difficult decisions that are being presented. Healthcare has always been posed with ethical dilemmas at times but the rapid changes and increases in need will not allow for occasional situations to arise that necessitate difficult decisions. These will become the norm for the daily operations for care delivery and the leadership of nursing homes must possess the ability to act courageously as an advocate for the patients and residents within the limited resources. <br>Like most other healthcare professions, NHAs are not proficiently trained to think in ethical terms, particularly on a day-to-day basis. In addition, there are inadequate ethical guidelines in the professional associations and licensing standards for administrators. Many NHAs do not possess the skills, knowledge, or character to enact moral courage. Without moral courage the residents and patients will not have the ethical representation by the leadership which poses a concern for upholding the best interests of the residents and patients who deserve to be treated with dignity and respect as valued and unique individuals. To think ethically requires education and skill development if not already intrinsic to the person. Ethical actions must follow through the decision making process and moral courage is the conduit for ethical leadership for the Nursing Home Administrator. <br>To understand these ethical concepts within the healthcare realm of nursing homes and the leadership perspective is to first review the background for this need for moral courage. The heart of holding a leadership position in any healthcare organization is to manage all operational aspects that provide and support the care of the patients and residents. The historical review of healthcare in the U.S. will look at the progression to the current implementation of healthcare reform which is necessitating decisions surrounding competing needs. This evolving healthcare situation is ripening challenges for moral courage in the forms of limited education in ethics, conflicts of interest, and resource allocation. The typical scenario for ethical dilemmas has been deciding between patient and financial benefits however decisions will increasingly involve choices among competing patient needs when each patient could benefit. Past examples are summarized which outline poor ethical choices among healthcare leaders which will further support an increasing need for moral courage in decision making. <br>In healthcare moral courage is rooted in providing care to patients in a caring manner. The relationship between moral courage and patient care will be assessed by defining morality and courage. Courage will be further explored from a philosophical perspective within its defining qualities of gaining insight, being motivated to act with courage, and to experience a need to help another which connects it very appropriately to care. The provision of care is the core function of nursing homes which can get lost or forgotten within the organizational complexities. The NHAs who possess the attribute of courage can utilize it through acts of caring. This caring nature can be exhibited by going beyond the self for the leadership and recognizing the sanctity and dignity of all human life which can be displayed in morally courageous decisions. For NHAs to act ethically, they must recognize patients as persons first who are in need of care. To come from the point of the patient is the foundation for decisions, ethically, in which the leader must maintain a human connection. The ethics of care brings together several points that are paramount to ethical decision making for the leadership. This theory includes basic principles for moral development and the relationships between the patients and the caregivers. Although the ethics of care is relationship-based, ethical leadership is still bound to upholding the rights of the patients which are supported by traditional ethical theories based in justice. The combination of the relationships with the patients, and being an advocate for their rights, aligns moral courage with caring actions. <br>Moral courage is the core of ethical leadership in nursing homes and starts with a review of determinates that contribute to the NHA leading morally. While there are contributors to strong ethical leadership such as values, competencies, emotional awareness, and accountability, there are also challenges that can lead to moral compromise. There are a variety of leadership styles which will be discussed along with secondary distinctions formulated on traits, which will offer differing approaches in enacting moral courage. Some styles lend themselves more readily to promoting an ethically grounded nursing home. Several models for ethical decision making will be explained which can be applied to morally courageous resolutions. <br>The actions and decisions of the leadership of all organizations define the ethical climate and their morally courageous decisions set the expectations for the rest of the organization to follow. The combination of written guidelines and the actions of the leadership flow into a level of trust. The nature of the ethical climate will be apparent through both internal and external means and in the value placed on the decisions surrounding quality of care and safety within nursing homes. Compliance and ethics programs serve as another level of support for providing positive ethical environments. These programs can offer nursing homes a constant mode of checks and balances to insure that an atmosphere is maintained which promotes moral courage throughout the organization. <br>A barrier for leaders to be effective in making decisions requiring moral courage is the need to comprehend and develop a level of competency to do so. Several strategies will be covered that include ethics education, leadership mentoring, and case study reviews that can be utilized for training and development purposes. Also models for assessing and carrying out decisions based in moral courage will be explained as other resources for leadership development. The author also offers a model of moral courage for consideration. <br>For the future of nursing homes moral courage will become a requirement in executive leadership for ethical decision making in the best interests of patient care. Given the demographic changes that are evolving along with the anticipated growth and resource allocation, the challenges surrounding ethical dilemmas will become increasingly problematic. Leaders will need to be tethered to a virtuous foundation of courage and care that never loses sight of the patient as person with the sanctity and dignity in all human life. As decisions are navigated through moral courage, which is translated through behaviors and actions of the NHA, they will necessitate that the leadership have the ability to operate beyond self-interests. Where the competencies do not exist there will be a need for leadership development and an even greater need for strength of character among the highest levels of healthcare organizations to establish positive ethical climates. The NHA leaders beginning now and into the future will need to balance the care requirements against resource limitations and financial viability in a more demanding way than ever before in this ever-changing healthcare delivery system. / McAnulty College and Graduate School of Liberal Arts; / Health Care Ethics / PhD; / Dissertation;

Do conjunto dos chamados primeiros diálogos de Platão, o Protágoras destaca-se como a obra em que é apresentada mais sistematicamente a doutrina conhecida como intelectualismo ético. Grosso modo, trata-se de compreender os temas éticos, como as virtudes ou excelências morais (justiça, piedade, sabedoria, temperança e coragem), exclusivamente como resultado de um processo cognitivo; em outros termos, trata-se de afirmar que os assuntos éticos para uma correta apreciação exigem a consideração de um tipo de conhecimento, que, sob esse diapasão, mostrar-se-á como o conhecimento do bem. O final do Protágoras apresenta esse ponto com clareza. Ali, as virtudes discutidas ao longo do diálogo são, a rigor, uma só coisa, a saber, conhecimento. A doutrina ética intelectualista conduz a consequências que não deixaram de ser exploradas por Platão nos primeiros diálogos, notadamente no Protágoras. Primeiramente, reduz-se com isso a multiplicidade das manifestações da excelência humana à posse de um conhecimento, problema que deixará sua herança à literatura antiga e que chega aos estudos eruditos contemporâneos como a questão da unidade das virtudes; em segundo lugar, o papel destacado do conhecimento na compreensão da vida ética requer a compreensão da relação deste com outros elementos fundamentais e reconhecidos, igualmente decisivos para a alma humana e para determinação das ações, como os apetites e as paixões. Este último ponto surge devido à constatação abundante nos diálogos da primeira fase de Platão, corroborada exemplarmente pelo Protágoras, de que o conhecimento é condição não apenas necessária, mas também suficiente para a obtenção e o exercício das virtudes, de modo que nenhum elemento extracognitivo (como o são paixões e apetites) é capaz de desviar a rota de ação indicada pelo conhecimento. Sendo o conhecimento do bem que caracteriza a virtude, hegemônico quando presente na alma humana, qual papel, portanto, seria reservado para paixões e apetites na ética dos primeiros diálogos? Uma doutrina que articula esses dois pontos é avançada no Protágoras, sendo este o diálogo que sistematiza e aprofunda as teorias socráticas presentes nos demais diálogos do conjunto. Nesse sentido, proponho um exame da relação entre virtude e conhecimento no Protágoras, dividido em duas partes: a primeira parte lidando mais diretamente com o problema da unidade das virtudes, enquanto a segunda investigará o sentido do intelectualismo ético segundo a relação entre conhecimento e elementos não cognitivos, parte na qual o exame de uma virtude particular receberá destaque: a coragem. / Among Platos first dialogues, the Protagoras stands out as the work in which the so called ethical intellectualism is exposed in the most systematic manner. Roughly, in ethical intellectualism, ethical themes such as virtues or moral excellences (justice, piety, wisdom, temperance and courage) are defined exclusively as the result of a cognitive process; in other terms, for ethical matters to be correctly understood, a certain knowledge must be considered; in this case, knowledge of the good. This point is made clear at the end of the Protagoras: all virtues discussed throughout the dialogue are strictly one thing, namely knowledge. The consequences of the intellectualist ethical doctrine were also explored by Plato in his first dialogues, especially in the Protagoras. First, the multiplicity of different manifestations of human excellence are thus reduced to the possession of a knowledge, a problem that was thoroughly explored in ancient literature and resulted, contemporarily, in the question of the unity of virtue. Secondly, the central role of knowledge in the comprehension of the ethical life requires the comprehension of the relation between knowledge and other admittedly fundamental aspects such as appetites and passions that are decisive to the human soul and crucial to determine ones actions. This latter point arises from the abundant observation in Platos first dialogues, especially in the Protagoras, that knowledge is not only a necessary condition but also a sufficient condition to obtain and exercise virtue in such a way that no extracognitive element (such as passions and appetites) is able to interfere in the path of action indicated by knowledge. If knowledge of the good is what defines virtue and if it is hegemonic when present in the human soul, what role is left to passions and appetites in the ethics of the first dialogues? These two points are articulated in the doctrine that is exposed in the Protagoras, a dialogue that deepens and systematizes Socrates theories discussed in the other dialogues from this period. Therefore, I intend to examine the relation between virtue and knowledge in the Protagoras. This work is divided in two parts: in the first, I deal with the problem of the unity of virtues; in the second part, I investigate the meaning of ethical intellectualism in view of the relation between knowledge and non-cognitive elements, and one particular virtue shall be examined: courage.

A concept originating from the Ancient Greeks, courage has long held cultural definitions from literature, philosophy, and theology. However, the construct of courage has largely been neglected in the extant psychological literature despite a significant influence on the human condition. The Tri-Part Model of Courage (Geller, 2014) served as a primary guiding framework for the present study, conceptualizing courage as comprised of three subtypes: bravery, boldness, and fortitude. This study sought to contribute to the ongoing development of this model through examination of the experience and expression of courage by experienced psychodynamic psychotherapists so as to render the construct useful in clinical and psychotherapy research contexts. Participants were 16 experienced psychodynamic psychotherapists. In-person semi- structured interviews were conducted and analyzed using the Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR) methodology. Ten domains emerged from the CQR analysis and revealed courage to be a subjective experience consisting of private theories, as well common definitional elements. Participants spontaneously endorsed the existence and importance of bravery, boldness, and fortitude in their role as psychotherapists, indicating the centrality of courage to their work. Authenticity, vulnerability, and staying present emerged as the most salient expressions of therapist courage. Specific patient presentations and therapeutic processes were identified as situations most requiring of therapist courage. Experience was the principal enabling factor to courage, and fear and avoidance were the principal obstacles to courage, while feelings associated with courageous acts ranged from fear, anxiety, and pain, to positive states of well being. Validation, confrontational techniques, modeling, and skills building were the most preferred clinical interventions to promote courage in patients. Gender analysis revealed that women make meaning of courage as having bases in fear and interpersonal relationships, while men understand courage as a set of abstract principles defined by existential anxiety and bold interventions. Fortitude was highly endorsed across genders, and men were further more oriented to fortitude, while female therapists were more oriented to bravery and boldness. The results are discussed in terms of the empirical support provided for the expansion of the Tri-Part Model of Courage and recommendations for clinical practice and future research.

This thesis analyses and interprets the famous Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf with regard to two main topics of the medieval epic poetry: the topics of courage and death. Theoretical background contains a description of medieval epic poetry and its functions. Furthermore, the introduction contains a description of English medieval epic poetry in historical and religious context (perception of death and afterlife with regard to the mixture of paganism and Christianity, meaning of heroism and heroic virtues - loyalty, pride, honour, persistency, determination, suppression of fear, willingness to help, sacrifice). Another chapter focuses on the creation of Beowulf itself and on the content and the form. The analysis draws on the Czech translation by J. Čermák. It focuses on the hero of the poem and it tries to find particular examples of the above mentioned virtues in three important passages of the poem (the fights with Grendel, with his mother and with the dragon). Another section deals with the image of death (the topics of burial, fateful disasters connected with monsters, fights), the question of afterlife, and with the function of the cyclic structure of epic poems (the never ending cycle of life and death) The thesis also tries to interpret the literary influence of the poem and its topicality.

<p>Uncertainty is a well-known phenomenon that is recurring in biographies, imaginative literature and science, but is less studied in nursing science. The aim of this participatory action research project was to, in collaboration with nursing students; explore nursing activities for relieving patients’ uncertainty. A qualitative approach was chosen with focus groups and the text was content analyzed. The students studied their third semester on a nursing program. The findings showed two different kinds of uncertainty, existential uncertainty and care evoked uncertainty. Relieving uncertainty showed to be a process in three steps. The first step is to reach deeper understanding of what uncertainty is and how it affects patients. The second step is to develop sensibility for how to discover uncertainty and the third step is to use uncertainty relieving strategies. To do this requires courage and a wish to share power with the patient. The strategies for relieving existential and care evoked uncertainty differed.</p>

Bakgrund: Det ökande antalet anmälningar till patientnämnder och Socialstyrelsen handlar iallt större utsträckning om patienters upplevelser av brister i möten med vårdpersonal. Inom vårdvetenskapen beskrivs begreppet vårdrelation som en grundläggande förutsättning för vårdandet. När sjuksköterskor misslyckas med att skapa vårdrelationer som är vårdande kan detta leda till ett vårdlidande och patienter fråntas rätten att vara delaktiga i sin hälsoprocess. Syfte: Syftet var att belysa sjuksköterskors beskrivningar och upplevelser av vad som gör vårdrelationer vårdande. Metod: Som metod användes en litteraturöversikt vilken baserades på en analys av tiokvalitativa vetenskapliga artiklar. Resultat: I resultatet framkom fyra teman som svarade mot syftet: medkänsla, närvaro, mod och att ta sig tid. Dessa teman går delvis in i varandra. Vårdrelationen blir vårdande när sjuksköterskan har mod att vara närvarande i mötet med patienten och har ett personligt engagemang, har den kreativa förmågan att lyssna och verkligen ta sig tid att höra vad patienten förmedlar. Diskussion: Det finns en risk att mänskliga värden går förlorade när sjuksköterskan har fokus på att utföra uppgifter och patienten objektifieras. Sjuksköterskans kunskap och medvetenhet om existentiella och medmänskliga behov behöver lyftas fram i vårdandet. Nyckelord: Vårdrelation, närvaro, medkänsla, mod. / Background: The increasing number of complaints to patient boards and Swedish board of social welfare focus on patients' perceptions of gaps in encounters with health professionals. In health science, the concept of caring relations is described as a fundamental prerequisite for caring. When nurses fail to provide caring relations may lead to a suffering for the patient and they are deprived of the right to participate in their health process. Aim: The aim of this study was to highlight nurses' descriptions and experiences of what makes the caring relationship caring. Method: A literature review based on an analysis of ten qualitative research articles was performed. Findings: The results revealed four themes that responded to the aim: compassion, presence, courage and take your time. These themes are partly intertwined. The caring relationship becomes caring when the nurse has the courage to be present in the meeting with the patient and has a personal commitment, has the creative ability to listen and really take the time to hear what the patient conveys. Discussion: There is a risk that human values are lost when the nurse ends up in performance and performs tasks. A nurse's knowledge and consciousness of existential and interpersonal needs must be highlighted in caring. Keywords: Caring relationship, presence, compassion, courage.

Uncertainty is a well-known phenomenon that is recurring in biographies, imaginative literature and science, but is less studied in nursing science. The aim of this participatory action research project was to, in collaboration with nursing students; explore nursing activities for relieving patients’ uncertainty. A qualitative approach was chosen with focus groups and the text was content analyzed. The students studied their third semester on a nursing program. The findings showed two different kinds of uncertainty, existential uncertainty and care evoked uncertainty. Relieving uncertainty showed to be a process in three steps. The first step is to reach deeper understanding of what uncertainty is and how it affects patients. The second step is to develop sensibility for how to discover uncertainty and the third step is to use uncertainty relieving strategies. To do this requires courage and a wish to share power with the patient. The strategies for relieving existential and care evoked uncertainty differed.