A interação Pratylenchus brachyurus x caupi (Vigna unguiculata) merece atualmente atenção especial no Brasil, pela escassez de informações contraposta à sua elevada ocorrência na cultura. O objetivo primário deste trabalho foi aprimorar o conhecimento sobre a importância potencial do nematóide na cultura do caupi no Brasil, por meio de experimentos em condições controladas, que demonstraram que P. brachyurus é patogênico para o caupi, por sua capacidade de interferir no crescimento das plantas. Como conseqüência e primeiro passo para o desenvolvimento de técnicas de manejo para P. brachyurus na cultura do caupi, foram conduzidos experimentos com o objetivo de avaliar a resistência de cultivares de caupi ao nematóide. Concluiu-se que o grau de resistência em caupi é baixo, provavelmente em função da grande similaridade genética dos materiais comerciais dessa planta. Portanto, o uso da resistência genética para o manejo de P. brachyurus em caupi dependerá da disponibilidade de cultivares com base genética mais ampla que a atual. Verificou-se ainda a existência de variação interpopulacional em relação à agressividade de P. brachyurus ao caupi, o que motivou a realização de estudos sobre a diversidade morfológica do nematóide. Análises multivariadas (PCA) de seis variáveis morfométricas (L, St, a, b, c e V%), obteve-se a efetiva separação de 11 populações de P. brachyurus em cinco grupos distintos; é possível que essa análise seja útil na identificação de populações do nematóide com diferentes agressividades ao caupi. Em outro estudo, sobre condições de campo, foi demonstrado que sistemas intensivos de cultivos, com dois ou mais ciclos anuais (usualmente na seqüência algodão, milho, soja e caupi), propiciam a manutenção de elevadas densidades de nematóides polífagos, como P. brachyurus em áreas infestadas, e, além disso, forneceu indícios de que M. incognita e P. brachyurus causam perdas de produção ao caupi em áreas irrigadas. / Pratylenchus brachyurus x cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) relationships are worthy of special concern in Brazil, due to scarcity of pertinent information and because the nematode is widespread in local plantations. The primary aim of this research - to improve the knowledge about the potential importance of P. brachyurus on cowpea in Brazil – was achieved though experiments developed under controlled conditions, which demonstrated that P. brachyurus actually is pathogenic and affected significantly the growth of cowpea plant. Furthermore, as a first step to the development of P. brachyurus management strategies in cowpea, greenhouse experiments were carried out in order to evaluate the resistance of cowpea cultivars to the nematode. It was concluded that the level of resistance to P. brachyurus in cowpea is low, probably due to the high genetic similarity among the current commercial cultivars. Thus, the use of genetic resistance for management of P. brachyurus in cowpea will depend on the future availability of cultivars characterized by a broader genetic base. Moreover, inter-population variation on nematode aggressiveness was detected and, accordingly, studies concerning the morphological diversity of the nematode were done subsequently. Multivariate analyses (PCA) of six morphometric variables (L, St, a, b, c, and V%) allowed 11 P. brachyurus populations to be separated for five distinct groups, a condition that can eventually be useful to identify populations with different degrees of aggressiveness to cowpea. In another study, under field conditions, it was demonstrated that intensive cropping systems, with two or more crops per year (usually in the sequence cotton, maize, soybean, cowpea), may be relevant for the maintenance of high population densities of polyphagous nematodes, as P. brachyurus, in the infested areas, and provided support to the idea that P. brachyurus and M. incognita can cause yield losses in irrigated areas.

Introdução: Doenças cardiovasculares constituem importante causa de morte em todo mundo e a hipercolesterolemia está diretamente relacionada a elas. A dieta desempenha papel importante neste processo e alguns alimentos como o feijão caupi (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp), especialmente sua proteína, tem sido apontado com potencial capacidade de redução do colesterol plasmático. Os efeitos hipocolesterolêmicos já observados indicaram o uso da proteína do feijão caupi, ou dos seus peptídeos, como ingrediente funcional de alimentos para a promoção da saúde e a redução do risco de doenças. Entretanto, as consequências da digestão gastrointestinal na absorção destes peptídeos são claramente complexas tornando essenciais estudos in vitro e in vivo para avaliar a sua bioacessibilidade e sua resistência à degradação gastrointestinal, além da disponibilidade e real eficácia destes peptídeos. Objetivo: Analisar a biodisponibilidade de peptídeos e avaliar parâmetros ligados ao metabolismo do colesterol em modelos animais após ingestão de isolado proteico de feijão caupi. Métodos: A farinha de feijão caupi foi desengordurada e sua proteína isolada. O isolado proteico foi submetido a métodos de hidrólise in vitro, para verificação das frações peptídicas formadas e inferência sobre a capacidade de ligação à albumina. Dois experimentos in vivo foram conduzidos. No primeiro, o isolado proteico do feijão caupi foi administrado a ratos e a concentração dos peptídeos monitorada no sangue, por 2 horas. O experimento in vivo 2 consistiu na alimentação de hamsters com dietas normo (N) - e hipercolesterolêmicas por 21 dias, contendo a proteína do feijão caupi como única proteína da ração (I), comparada ao controle de caseína (H). Neste experimento foram analisados no plasma: colesterol total (CT) e frações (LDLc, VLDLc e HDLc), triglicerídeos (TG) e peptídeos; nas fezes: colesterol total (CF) e ácidos biliares (AB); no fígado: colesterol (CH) e lipídeos totais (LH), HMGCR (atividade enzimática e expressão) e expressão de SREBP2, LDLR, ABCA1, ABCG1, ABCG5, ABCG8, LXRa e AMPK. Resultados: Os peptídeos identificados a partir da hidrólise proteica do feijão caupi, ou a partir do plasma dos animais estudados não evidenciaram similaridades entre os experimentos ou corresponderam a sequências previamente identificadas para o feijão caupi a partir de banco de dados. CT, VLDLc, HDLc, TG, CH dos hamsters foram maiores nos grupos H e I quando comparado ao N; LDLc foi maior para I comparado aos demais; LH foi maior em H comparado a N, sendo que I não diferiu dos demais; CF foi maior para I comparado a N, sendo que H não diferiu dos demais. A expressão de ABCA1 foi maior para I em relação aos demais; LXRa foi maior para I em relação a H, mas N não diferiu dos demais; SREBP2 foi menor em H em comparação aos demais; HMGCR foi mais expressa em N em comparação aos demais, ao passo que a atividade desta enzima foi maior em I quando comparado a N, sendo que H não diferiu dos demais. Não houve diferença entre os grupos quanto a AB ou expressão de ABCG8 ou AMPK. Não foram obtidos resultados de expressão para LDLR, ABCG1 e ABCG5. Conclusão: Apesar de pesquisas anteriores a este trabalho terem evidenciado a capacidade do isolado proteico do feijão caupi em inibir a atividade da HMGCR, inibir a solubilização micelar ou melhorar o perfil de lipídeos plasmáticos, no trabalho atual esta matéria prima não mostrou atuação positiva quanto ao metabolismo do colesterol de hamsters nas condições experimentais utilizadas. Os fragmentos indicados como peptídeos obtidos a partir da hidrólise proteica do feijão caupi, ou do plasma dos animais estudados não corresponderam a peptídeos com comprovada, ou até mesmo, com indicação de bioatividade / Introduction: Cardiovascular diseases are important cause of death worldwide and hypercholesterolemia is directly related to them. Diet plays an important role in this process and some foods such as cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp), especially its protein, have been shown to have a potential for reducing plasma cholesterol. The hypocholesterolemic effects already observed indicated the use of cowpea protein, or its peptides, as a functional food ingredient for health promotion and reduction of disease risk. However, the consequences of gastrointestinal digestion on the absorption of these peptides are clearly complex, making in vitro and in vivo studies essential to assess their bioaccessibility and resistance to gastrointestinal degradation, as well as the availability and actual efficacy of these peptides. Objectives: To analyze the bioavailability of peptides and evaluate parameters related to cholesterol metabolism in animal models after ingestion of protein isolate of cowpea. Methods: Cowpea flour was defatted and its protein isolated. The protein isolate was subjected to in vitro hydrolysis methods to verify the formed peptide fractions and inference about albumin binding ability. Two in vivo experiments were conducted. In the first, the cowpea protein isolate was administered to rats and the concentration of the peptides monitored in the blood for 2 hours. The in vivo experiment 2 consisted of feeding hamsters with normal (N) - and hypercholesterolemic diets for 21 days, containing the cowpea protein as the sole dietary protein (I), compared to casein control (H). In this experiment were analyzed in the plasma: total cholesterol (TC) and fractions (LDLc, VLDLc and HDLc), triglycerides (TG) and peptides; In feces: total cholesterol (CF) and bile acids (AB); In the liver: cholesterol (CH) and total lipids (LH), HMGCR (enzymatic activity and expression) and expression of SREBP2, LDLR, ABCA1, ABCG1, ABCG5, ABCG8, LXRa and AMPK. XX. Results: The peptides identified from the protein hydrolysis of cowpea or from the plasma of the animals studied did not show similarities among the experiments or correspond to sequences previously identified for the cowpea from the database. CT, VLDLc, HDLc, TG, CH of hamsters were higher in groups H and I when compared to N; LDLc was higher for I compared to the others; LH was higher in H compared to N, and I did not differ from the others; CF was higher for I compared to N, and H did not differ from the others. The expression of ABCA1 was higher for I than the others; LXRa was higher for I than H, but N did not differ from the others; SREBP2 was lower in H compared to the others; HMGCR was more expressed in N compared to the others, whereas the activity of this enzyme was higher in I when compared to N, and H did not differ from the others. There was no difference between groups regarding AB or expression of ABCG8 or AMPK. No expression results were obtained for LDLR, ABCG1 and ABCG5. Conclusion: Although previous research to this work evidenced the ability of the cowpea protein isolate to inhibit HMGCR activity, inhibit micellar solubilization or improve the plasma lipid profile, in the current work this raw material did not show a positive cholesterol metabolism of hamsters under the experimental conditions used. The fragments indicated as peptides obtained from the protein hydrolysis of cowpea beans, or from the plasma of the animals studied did not correspond to peptides with proven, or even, with indication of bioactivity

Introdução: As doenças cardiovasculares representam a principal causa de morte no mundo, sendo o aumento da concentração de colesterol sanguíneo um dos seus principais fatores de risco. O processo aterosclerótico envolve não apenas a deposição de colesterol nas artérias, mas a inflamação tem papel central em todas as fases do processo aterosclerótico. Estudo em animais mostrou, por sua vez, que a proteína de feijão caupi é um potente redutor na concentração de colesterol sangüíneo. Objetivo: Avaliar a influência da proteína de feijão caupi sobre o perfil lipídico, apolipoproteínas, glicose, insulina, HOMA-IR, marcadores de inflamação e de disfunção endotelial em pacientes hipercolesterolêmicos. Métodos: A proteína de feijão caupi foi isolada por precipitação isoelétrica da farinha de feijão caupi desengordurada. O isolado protéico de caupi (IPC) foi utilizado no desenvolvimento do shake à base de proteína de caupi, caseinato de cálcio foi utilizado para desenvolvimento do shake controle. Realizou-se um ensaio clínico do tipo crossover, aleatorizado, cego e controlado. Uma amostra de 44 indivíduos hipercolesterolêmicos foi dividida em 2 grupos (Grupo Controle e Grupo IPC), cada grupo recebeu shake caseína e shake IPC, respectivamente, por 6 semanas cada. Depois do washout de 4 semanas, os indivíduos receberam o shake oposto por mais 6 semanas. Foram quantificadas as variáveis bioquímicas: colesterol total, LDL-c, HDL-c, triglicerídeos, colesterol não-HDL, apo A1, apo B, razão LDL/HDL, razão TG/HDL, razão apo B/apo A1, glicose de jejum, insulina de jejum, HOMA-IR (modelo de avaliação da homeostase), proteína C reativa (PCR), molécula de adesão intercelular solúvel-1 (sICAM-1) e molécula de adesão vascular solúvel-1 (sVCAM- 1) antes e após cada período experimental. A diferença entre os shakes foi analisada com ANOVA para medidas repetidas ao nível de significância de 5 por cento . Resultados: A amostra final foi composta por 38 indivíduos com idade média de 57 anos. A redução em cadeia (delta após consumo de proteína de feijão caupi menos delta após consumo de caseína) no colesterol total foi de 21,0 mg.dL-1 (p < 0,001), CT( por cento ) foi de 8,4 por cento (p < 0,001), LDL( por cento ) foi de 14,4 por cento (p < 0,001), colesterol não-HDL foi de 24,3 mg.dL-1 (p < 0,001) e apo B foi de 15,5 mg.dL-1 (p < 0,001). A ingestão de proteína de caupi afetou significativamente o HDL-c e a mudança em cadeia observada foi um aumento de 3,2 mg.dL-1 (p =0,044). Os marcadores de metabolismo glicídico (glicose de jejum, insulina de jejum e HOMA-IR), bem como os marcadores de inflamação (PCR) e de disfunção endotelial (sVCAM-1 e sICAM- 1) não sofreram modificações significativas após consumo de proteína de feijão caupi (p > 0,05). Conclusão: O presente estudo mostra que a ingestão diária de 25 g de proteína de feijão caupi durante 6 semanas é capaz de reduz os níveis de colesterol sanguíneo, em especial a fração LDL-c; no entanto, não parece exercer influência sobre os marcadores de inflamação subclínica e de disfunção endotelial. Portanto, o aumento do consumo de feijão caupi pode representar uma alternativa eficaz, barata e viável na melhora dos níveis lipídicos em indivíduos hipercolesterolêmicos / Introduction: Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death worldwide, and the increase of cholesterol in blood is one of their main risk factors. The atherosclerotic process involves not only the deposition of cholesterol in the arteries, inflammation plays a central role in all stages of atherosclerosis. Animal study showed that the protein of cowpea is a potent reducer of blood cholesterol. Objective: To evaluate the influence of cowpea protein on blood lipids, apolipoproteins, glucose, insulin, HOMA-IR, markers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in hypercholesterolemic patients. Methods: The protein of cowpea was isolated by isoelectric precipitation of defatted flour of cowpea. Cowpea protein isolate (CPI) was used to develop the cowpea protein shake, and calcium caseinate was used for development of the control shake. A cross-over, randomized, blinded and controlled clinical trial was conducted with a sample of 44 hypercholesterolemic subjects, which was divided into two groups (control group and CPI group). Each group received casein shake and CPI shake, respectively, for taken for 6 weeks. After this period and a 4-week washout, subjects received the opposite shake for taken for 6 weeks. Biochemical variables were measured: total cholesterol, LDL-C, HDL-C, triglycerides, non-HDL cholesterol, apo A1, apo B, LDL/HDL ratio, TG/HDL ratio, apo B/apo A1 ration, fasting glucose, fasting insulin, HOMA-IR (homeostasis model assessment), C-reactive protein (CRP), soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1) and soluble vascular adhesion molecule-1 (sVCAM-1) before and after each experimental period. The difference between the shakes was analyzed with repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) at a significance level of 5 per cent . Results: The final sample consisted of 38 subjects with mean age of 57 years. The net changes in serum total cholesterol concentrations was a decrease of -21.05 mg.dL-1 (p < 0.001), in total cholesterol was -8.42 per cent (p < 0.001), in LDL-c was -14.36 per cent (p < 0.001), in non-HDL cholesterol was -24.29 mg.dL-1 (p < 0.001) and apoB was -15.55 mg.dL-1 (p < 0.001). Cowpea protein intake significantly affected serum HDL-c concentrations, the net change was a increase of 3.24 mg.dL-1 (p= 0,044). Markers of glycemic control (fasting glucose, fasting insulin and HOMA-IR) and inflammation markers (CRP) and endothelial dysfunction (sICAM-1 and sVCAM-1) have not changed significantly after consumption of cowpea protein (p > 0.05). Conclusion: This study shows that daily intake of 25 g of cowpea protein for 6 weeks can reduce levels of blood cholesterol, especially LDL-c, however did not exhibit influence on markers of subclinical inflammation and endothelial dysfunction. Therefore, the consumption of cowpea can be an effective, inexpensive and feasible way to control blood lipids of hypercholesterolemic subjects

A survey involving 71 farmers from rural communities in Mpumalanga, South Africa was conducted to gather information regarding the importance and utilisation of cowpea. Cowpea was rated third most important in contributing to household security, preceded by maize and vegetable production. Cowpea was mainly produced for own consumption, as a source of income and as fodder for livestock to a lesser extent. The crop was used by 8.5% of the farmers for medicinal purposes. Results indicated that 20% of the farmers encountered problems with mouldiness during storage, with insect infestation to a lesser degree. Cowpea seed samples from South Africa and Benin, West Africa were analysed for seed mycoflora and various fungal genera, particularly Aspergillus, Phoma and Lasiodiplodia were recorded. The results indicated an array of Fusarium spp. including F. equiseti, F. chlamydosporum, F. graminearum, F. proliferatum, F. sambucinum, F. scirpi, F. semitectum and F. subglutinans. The seed samples and the F. proliferatum isolates, cultured on maize patty media, were analysed for fumonisin production. Samples were extracted with methanol/water (70:30) and cleaned-up on strong anion exchange solid phase extraction cartridges. High-performance liquid chromatography with pre-column derivatisation using o-phthaldialdehyde was used for the detection and quantification of FB1, FB2 and FB3. The cowpea cultivars from South Africa had levels of FB1 ranging between 0.12 – 0.61 µg/g. All the F. proliferatum isolates produced FB1, FB2 and FB3 with total fumonisin concentration levels between 0.80 - 25.30 µg/g. The highest level of FB1 detected was 16.86 µg/g. Surface-disinfected seeds were imbibed in sterile distilled water amended with FB1 to yield final concentrations of 10, 25, 50 and 100 ppm. Percentage germination was determined in paper towels according to the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) rules. Root and shoot length was measured after 9 days. All the toxin concentrations significantly decreased seed germination whilst root and shoot elongation was inhibited by the 50 and 100 ppm concentrations. Embryonic seed tissue treated with FB1 indicated compaction of the protoplasm and separation of the plasma membrane from the cell wall. Lipid bodies accumulated and seemed to line the cell wall. Acetone and ethanol extracts of the leaves of two cowpea cultivars exhibited significant inhibition of the growth of fungal plant pathogens at 5.0 mg/ml, with the exception of Fusarium equiseti. The growth of some fungi, in particular Alternaria alternate, was also reduced by lower concentrations of certain extracts. Acetone extracts of the Bechwana White cultivar inhibited growth of Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis at 2.5 mg/ml and Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis and Enterobacter cloacae at 5.0 mg/ml. Ethanol extracts of the same cultivar showed antibacterial activity against E. faecalis and E. cloacae at 5.0 mg/ml. This study represents the first report on the natural occurrence of fumonisins on cowpea seed and the potential of F. proliferatum isolates from cowpea seed to produce fumonisins. The phytotoxic effects of FB1 on cowpea seeds as well as the antimicrobial potential of cowpea leaf extracts were demonstrated for the first time. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Microbiology and Plant Pathology / unrestricted

Pearl millet is a cereal crop cultivated by subsistence farmers in semi-arid parts of Africa and Asia. In Namibia, pearl millet porridge is a staple food for over half of the population. Healthful Harvest, a cooperative of subsistence farmers in a rural area in Namibia is developing a flour product with extended shelf life and a short cooking time comprising pearl millet and cowpea. This requires the application of simple technology. The pearl millet grain is small (3-15 mg) but has a proportionally larger germ than all other cereal grains, except perhaps maize. Therefore, it tends to contain a high content of triglycerides, which are rich in unsaturated fatty acids. Pearl millet flour is susceptible to rancidity within a few days due to lipolysis and subsequent oxidation of the de-esterified unsaturated fatty acids. To try to prevent rancidity and to pre-cook, pearl millet grain was subjected to toasting, boiling and toasting then boiling before reduction to flour. The effects of these different thermal treatments on fat acidity, peroxide value (PV) and conjugated diene and triene values of pearl millet flour before and after three months storage at ambient conditions were determined. The degree of cook of starch was determined on fresh flours. The porridges made from the flour of the treated grains were evaluated by a trained panel and by consumers. Analyses of energy demands and practicality of the thermal treatments and extrusion cooking as processing technologies in manufacturing pearl millet flour in rural parts of Namibia were made. Fat acidity for the untreated flour increased significantly from 0.11 to 3.72 g KOH kg-1, whereas no significant increase observed in the flours of wet thermally-treated grains. This indicates that wet thermal treatments inhibited triglyceride hydrolysis. The PVs of the flours of the wet thermally-treated grain increased seven-fold, while the PV of the untreated flour decreased. A similar trend was observed for the conjugated diene values. The conjugated triene values increased significantly for all the samples. These results indicate autoxidation in the thermally-treated samples and that there was accumulation of hydroperoxides. The degree of cook of the wet thermally-treated grain (~40%) was twice that of the untreated and toasted grains, indicating that the wet thermal treatment partially gelatinised the grain. Porridges prepared using untreated flours were associated with rancid flavours, while those of other treatments were not, indicating that the thermal treatments can prevent rancidity. Consumers preferred the porridge prepared using flour of the boiled grain, presumably because it was fully cooked, whereas others were not. Thus, the boiling treatment can be applied to extend the shelf life of and pre-cook pearl millet flour. The energy demands for boiling and extrusion cooking were estimated to be 0.6 and 0.2 kWh kg-1, respectively. The energy demand for the boiling process can be minimised by sun-drying instead of using electricity. The cost of an extruder would be prohibitively costly for Healthful Harvest. Thus, boiling the grain is a suitable appropriate technology that can be applied in the Healthful Harvest situation by ordinary people, with no specialist skills. / Thesis (MSc(Agric) (Food Science and Technology))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Food Science / MSc(Agric) / unrestricted

Cowpea, Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. is an important edible legume crop gaining recognition in the world generally and in Africa particular. The seed is a very good source of vegetable protein for millions of people living in sub-Saharan Africa. Cowpea seed are susceptible to global post-harvest losses caused by insect damage, microbial deterioration and other factors especially when stored at high ambient temperatures and relative humidities. The detection of Fusarium species and fumonisins associated with cowpea seed was primarily investigated in this study. Secondly, the antifungal activity of extracts from three Rubiaceae plant species was evaluated against five Fusarium species. Column chromatography was used in an attempt to isolate potential compounds from the plant extracts. Cowpea seed samples were obtained from a local market of a rural community in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa and were analysed for seed mycoflora and various fungal genera including, Aspergillus spp., Fusarium spp. (Fusarium oxysporum. F. solani, F. subglutinans, F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum), Penicillium spp., Chaetomium spp., Chrysonilia spp., Cladosporium spp., Monascus spp., Phoma spp., Mucor spp., Alternaria alternata, Epicoccum spp. and Lasiodiplodia theobromae were isolated from the seed samples. Some Fusarium species including F. oxysporum, F. verticillioides, F. subglutinans, F. solani and F. proliferatum were cultured on maize patty media and analysed for fumonisin production. Fumonisin detection was conducted using the VICAM Affinity method. Only Fusarium subglutinans and F. oxysporum produced fumonisin B analogues ranging between 1.1 - 4.3 ìg/g and 3.47 - 31.66 μg/g, respectively. Neither Fusarium verticillioides, F. solani nor F. proliferatum revealed any production of fumonisin B. Fumonisin B analogues were found to be present in all the cowpea seed samples with levels ranging between 6.2 - 59 μg/g. Purified fumonisin B1 was used to investigate the phytotoxic effects of the toxin in vitro and in vivo on cowpea seedling growth and emergence and also on the ultrastructure of the seed tissue. Surface-disinfected seeds were imbibed in sterile distilled water amended with FB1 at various concentrations (10, 25, 50 and 100 μg/ml) and dry seeds and seeds imbibed in sterile distilled water served as the controls. Percentage germination was determined in vitro and in vivo according to the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) rules. Root and shoot length was measured after 8 days. Compared to the controls all the concentrations significantly decreased seed germination and the highest concentrations of FB1 (50 and 100 μg/ml) inhibited root and shoot elongation. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to study sections of the cotyledon and embryonic tissue of cowpea seed. Samples were treated with different concentrations of FB1. Compared to the controls, the degree of damage to the vacuoles, cell walls and lipid bodies of cowpea seed tissue was directly proportional to the concentrations. The efficacy of crude extracts from Morinda citrifolia, Gardenia brighamii, and Psychotria capensis was investigated against various Fusarium species by two methods. The microtitre plate doubling dilution method and bioautography method were used to test methanol, acetone, and dichloromethane extracts of the leaves for their antifungal activity. Psychotria capensis acetone extracts showed the best inhibition against F. proliferatum and F. verticillioides with an MIC of 1.5 mg/ml and an MFC of 1.5 mg/ml. The dichloromethane extracts exhibited no activity against the Fusarium species tested. Column chromatographic purification of methanolic extracts of the leaves of P. capensis led to the isolation and identification of two compounds namely β-sitosterol and a carotenoid derivative. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Plant Science / unrestricted

The progressive increase in the global population and the rapidly changing climate have put unprecedented pressure on crop production. Cowpea is one of the world’s most important leguminous crops, contributing to food security and environmental sustainability. However, cowpea productivity is limited due to waterlogging stress. The main objective of this study was to explore physiological and biochemical mechanisms to understand how cowpea genotypes respond to waterlogging stress. Four studies were conducted in controlled and field conditions to achieve these objectives. Study 1 characterized the waterlogging tolerance of 30 cowpea genotypes in a controlled environment using 24 morphophysiological parameters with waterlogging tolerance coefficients and multivariate analysis methods. 10% of the genotypes exhibited high tolerance to waterlogging stress, and the genotypes UCR 369 and EpicSelect.4 were identified as the most and least waterlogging tolerant, respectively. Study 2 evaluated the key parameters influencing carbon fixation of UCR 369 and EpicSelect.4 at the reproductive stage. The less tolerant EpicSelect.4 experienced high downregulation of stomatal and non-stomatal limiting factors during waterlogging and recovery, resulting in decreased carbon assimilation rates. UCR 369 rapidly developed adventitious roots, maintained biomass, and restored pigments and metabolites to sustain photosynthesis. A two-year field experiment was conducted in study 3 to quantify the effects of waterlogging on the yields, physiology, and biochemistry of cowpeas at different growth stages. The most apparent impact of waterlogging stress occurred at the reproductive stage, followed by the vegetative and maturity growth stages. Studies suggest that diverse cowpea genotypes have distinct physiological and biochemical mechanisms in response to waterlogging stress. In addition, the tolerant genotypes and traits identified herein can be used in genetic engineering and cowpea breeding programs that integrate increased yield with waterlogging stress tolerance.

No description available.

Abiotic stresses cause extensive loss to agriculture production worldwide. Cowpea is an important legume crop grown widely in tropical and subtropical regions where high temperature, ultraviolet-B (UVB) radiation and drought are the common stress factors limiting production. Various vegetative, physiological, biochemical and reproductive plant attributes were assessed under a range of UVB radiation levels in Experiment I and in a combination with two doses of each carbon dioxide concentration [CO2], temperature, and UVB radiation and their interactions in Experiment II by using six cowpea genotypes and sunlit plant growth chambers. The dynamics of photosynthesis and fluorescence processes were assessed in 15 cowpea genotypes under drought condition in Experiment III in pot-grown plants under sunlit conditions. A distinct response pattern was not observed in cowpea in response to UVB radiation form 0 to 15 kJ; however, plants grown under elevated UVB showed reduced photosynthesis resulting in shorter plants and produced smaller flowers and lower seed yield. Increased phenolic compounds appeared to be a defense response to UVB radiation. The growth enhancements observed by doubling of [CO2] were not observed when plants were grown in combination with elevated UVB or temperature which also showed the most detrimental effects on plant growth and seed yield. Results form Experiment I and II revealed that cowpea reproductive traits were highly sensitive to abiotic stresses compared to the vegetative growth and development. A total stress response index (TSRI) technique, derived from all vegetative and reproductive parameters, was used to screen genotypes for their stress tolerance to UVB or combination of stresses. An increase in water use efficiency while maintaining higher rate of photosynthesis was an important drought tolerance mechanism in tolerant cowpea genotypes. Using principal component analysis technique, four groups of the genotypes were identified for their drought tolerance. Evaluating same genotypes across stress conditions revealed that no single genotype has the absolute tolerance characters to all stress conditions. The identified diversity for abiotic stress tolerance among cowpea genotypes and associated traits can be used to develop tolerant genotypes suitable for an agro-ecological niche though traditional breeding or genetic engineering methods.

No description available.