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The driving argument of this thesis is that states, particularly the United States, are vulnerable in cyberspace for reasons that go beyond the material vulnerabilities that present studies on state insecurity in cyberspace focus on. This vulnerability in cyberspace is an ontological insecurity. Ontological insecurity reveals itself in the contradictions in official state discourse regarding cyberspace. State security of self—preserving and maintaining the seemingly concrete and consistent nature of what a state is about, how the state is understood in relation to other states, and how the state comes to understand itself through its own conceptions of self-identity—is challenged by cyberspace as a vehicle for massive amounts of information and challenges to state identity in relation to the state's behavior in cyberspace. Therefore, state identity and self-image are challenged in relation to cyberspace in two ways: first, through the vehicle that is cyberspace, and, second, through the practices that the state adopts to secure cyberspace and its broader security aims. The language that states, in this case the United States, use in order to justify surveillance practices and to impose meaning to cyberspace ultimately leads to projections of power that attempt to reinforce state strength and legitimacy vis-à-vis cyberspace, but these attempts fall short; contradictions arise in state discourse, and weaknesses are highlighted through these contradictions. Cyberspace, then, is an ontological as well as physical security threat to states. / Master of Arts

This dissertation explores how coercive diplomacy works in cyberspace through three interrelated papers, each titled, Coercion in Cyberspace: A Model of Encryption Via Extortion, Variation in Coercion: Costly Signals That Also Undermine Attack Effectiveness, and Seeking Clarity In A Domain of Deception: Signaling and Indices in Cyberspace. As more strategic actors seek to employ cyber weapons as an important part of their military arsenal, refining the theory of cyber coercion is becoming more important in understanding coercive diplomacy and crisis dynamics in cyberspace. Although existing cyber conflict literature argues that cyber weapons make poor tools of coercion, the current theory does not necessarily match important empirical instances of successful coercion using cyber means, such as the ransomware and data extortion. This dissertation seeks to close this gap between theory and practice by specifying the conditions under which cyber coercion works. Relatedly, the dissertation also explores the conditions under which costly signaling works in conveying such coercive threats. The first paper presents a formal model of cyber coercion that relies on data encryption, as a means of explaining why cyber weapons often rely on a different coercive logic. Coercion in International Relations is often conceptualized as the threat to hurt used in reserve, applied in settings such as the use of nuclear weapons or strategic bombing. However, history is ripe with instances of a different logic of coercion that relies on the application of costs up front, followedby a promise to stop. Application of such a coercive logic can be seen in instances such as sanctions, hostage-taking, and sieges. Existing literature argues that cyber weapons make poor tools of coercion, however this only examines cyber weapons under the first logic. However, cyber weapons, when examined under the second logic, are often quite successful, as the prevalence of the ransomware threat demonstrates. This paper specifies the conditions under which coercion using data encryption works in light of the second logic, and what unique commitment problems can undermine coercion in this situation. By applying costs up front, some cyber weapons resolve a key strategic dilemma in which conveying specific information regarding how the attack will unfold can allow the defender to take mitigations that render the planned attack useless. The second paper complements the first paper by presenting a formal model that explores the first logic, and specifies the conditions under which cyber coercion relying on the threat to hurt used in reserve works. A key theory in the existing cyber conflict literature argues that cyber weapons make poor tools of coercion due to the “cyber commitment problem," in which a coercer faces a tradeoff between the need to credibly demonstrate specific capability to follow through with a threat, versus the propensity of the defender to use such information to adopt countermeasures. This tradeoff is not necessarily unique to cyberspace, but applicable to technologies that rely on degrees of deception for attack effectiveness, such as submarine warfare. I present a formal model motivated by cyber weapons but applicable to a broad range of technologies in International Relations, showing that the severity of this tradeoff is not constant but varies depending on exogenous factors, such as the probability that a defensive countermeasure can successfully neutralize a threatened attack. When the probability is high, this shrinks the range of costly signals that a coercer can send to maintain a separating equilibrium, however it does not necessarily mean that costly signaling is not possible. This paper formalizes and expands the logic behind the “cyber commitment problem" and shows that coercion can sometimes work even under the first logic. The third paper examines the role of indices – or observations that are believed to be hard to deceive as opposed to overt signals of intent – in coercive diplomacy and crisis communications in cyberspace. Because actors acting in and through cyberspace have yet to come to a clear shared meaning as to what certain actions in cyberspace conveys in terms of intent and/or resolve, the tendency to instead rely on independent observation and assessment of “indices” to interpret these actions are more pronounced in cyber conflict. This paper uses cybersecurity advisories routinely published by the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) to examine what kinds of indices were used by the U.S. government to make assessments about an attacker’s intent regarding restraint or escalation. Interestingly, the same kind of cyber attack, for example the malicious compromise of a water utilities facility, is interpreted differently as escalatory or accommodative depending on consideration of “situational indices" such as the larger geopolitical context and attribution to a particular state actor, beyond the technical facts. This paper assesses that indices are being used too broadly, even when they can be manipulated easily or are linked to perceptions and biases instead of facts. Such practices can lead to situations where the same costly signal sent by the sender in the context of coercive diplomacy or crisis communications can be interpreted differently by the receiver depending on the suite of indices they are relying on, raising the risk of misperception and crisis escalation in cyberspace.

Research suggests that college students persist in college when they feel connected to something or someone at their institution. These connections are often established through academic and social engagement. Tinto (1987) described these concepts as academic integration and social integration. Much research has been done regarding the importance of academic and social integration. Some have looked at technology's impact on the ways in which students achieve social and academic integration. However, there has been little research regarding how the current student population uses Instant Messaging to supplement traditional behaviors associated with academic and social engagement. The present study was designed to address these gaps in the present literature on social and academic integration. The purpose of this study was to examine how college students use Instant Messenger (IM). Specifically, the present study explored if college students use IM to supplement traditional behaviors associated with academic and social integration. Data were collected from emailed IM conversations, logsheets submitted by the participants, and answers to IM survey questions. The results of the analysis of these data were compared to Gatz's (1998) lists of traditional behaviors associated with academic and social integration. Results seem to suggest that college students use Instant Messaging for primarily social purposes. When students engage socially through IM, it is most often used to connect or stay connected with friends. Interestingly, the majority of the friends college students are Instant Messaging are fellow students from their home institution. When students do use IM for academic purposes, it is most often used to set up project meeting times or ask questions about a class. / Master of Arts

Lam Hiu Kwan. / "Architecture Department, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Master of Architecture Programme 2007-2008, design report." / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 19). / Includes some text in Chinese. / Chapter 1. --- Thesis Statement --- p.2 / Chapter 2. --- Background / Chapter I. --- background stories --- p.3 / 26 years old; 12 years old / Chapter II. --- terminology --- p.4-5 / Chapter 1. --- cyborg; / Chapter 2. --- cyberpunk; / Chapter 3. --- hikikomori; / Chapter 4. --- otaku; / Chapter 5. --- cosplay; / Chapter 6. --- kiduIt; / Chapter 7. --- cyberspace / Chapter III. --- sociological discourses --- p.6-8 / Chapter 1. --- live in simcity - William Gibson / Will actual life be taken over by the virtual one? / Chapter 2. --- influx of information and hyperreality - Jean Baudrillard / Will actual life be taken over by the virtual one? / Chapter 3. --- popular culture from Japan - Tong Ching-Siu / "We like idle, we like cuteness!" / Chapter 4. --- overturn of social order and multi-identities - Donna Haraway / Who am I? Who are you? / Chapter 5. --- together and isolation / Chapter IV. --- architectural discourses --- p.9-10 / Chapter 1. --- overturn of social order - Kazuyo Sejima / Chapter 2. --- together and isolation - Kisho Kurokawa / Chapter 3. --- "visualize cyberspace - Marcos Novak, Clayton Graham" / Chapter 4. --- "virtual quality - Zaha Had id, Kazuyo Sejima" / Chapter 5. --- interactivity - Ole Bouman / Chapter 6. --- computer aided deisgn - Ole Bouman / Chapter 3. --- Overview of Design Proposal --- p.11 / Chapter I. --- program selection - Cyborg Culture Centre / Chapter II. --- site selection - Tuen Mun Park / Chapter 4. --- Overview of Architectural Studies --- p.12 / Chapter I. --- materialize the non-space of cyber world (analogical analysis) / Chapter a. --- cultural activities of cyborg groups in virtual space / Chapter b. --- humanity influences by virtual space / Chapter II. --- reveal the contrast of cyber & actual worlds (graphical analysis) / Chapter 5. --- Findings from Studies --- p.13-15 / Chapter la. --- internet maps; / Chapter lb. --- psycological distances; / Chapter II. --- "spatial variety, perspective, approach, design target" / Chapter 6. --- Testings of Design Strategies --- p.16-18 / Chapter 1. --- program derived from internet map / Chapter 2. --- quality of introversive cyberspace / Chapter 3. --- quality of extroversive connection / Chapter 7. --- Bibliography --- p.19 / Chapter 8. --- Renewed Thesis Statement --- p.20 / Chapter 9. --- Final Presentation (including summary of studies and design responses) / Chapter I. --- issue in summary --- p.21-22 / Chapter a. --- cyborg generation / Chapter b. --- cyborg culture and living style / Chapter c. --- human-human & human-machine contacts / Chapter d. --- humanities of the cyborg / Chapter II. --- site context in summary --- p.23 / Chapter III. --- program and spacial organization --- p.24-25 / Chapter a) --- spacial organization / Chapter b) --- program / Chapter c) --- studies & proposal / Chapter IV. --- circulation --- p.26 / Chapter V. --- detail in single rental living units --- p.27 / Chapter VI. --- graphical presentation --- p.28-30 / Chapter II. --- model presentation --- p.31 / Chapter 10. --- Accreditation

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How do organizations rapidly assess command-level effects of cyber attacks? Leaders need a way of assuring themselves that their organization, people, and information technology can continue their missions in a contested cyber environment. To do this, leaders should: 1) require assessments be more than analogical, anecdotal or simplistic snapshots in time; 2) demand the ability to rapidly model their organizations; 3) identify their organization’s structural vulnerabilities; and 4) have the ability to forecast mission assurance scenarios. Using text mining to build agent based dynamic network models of information processing organizations, I examine impacts of contested cyber environments on three common focus areas of information assurance—confidentiality, integrity, and availability. I find that assessing impacts of cyber attacks is a nuanced affair dependent on the nature of the attack, the nature of the organization and its missions, and the nature of the measurements. For well-manned information processing organizations, many attacks are in the nuisance range and that only multipronged or severe attacks cause meaningful failure. I also find that such organizations can design for resiliency and provide guidelines in how to do so.

En ce début de siècle, l'information a pris une dimension capitale grâce aux nouvelles technologies. On parle de la société mondiale de l'information, réduisant la planète en un « village global ». Cependant, les pays des Suds, à la périphérie de ce processus, souffrent de la fracture numérique. Néanmoins, une dynamique des Tic s’y développe à travers des modèles d’accès adaptés aux réalités socio-économiques. A Dakar, ces modèles populaires ont permis une appropriation profonde du mobile alors qu’Internet, l’élément essentiel de cette révolution numérique, tarde à s’ancrer dans l’espace urbain. Dakar, ville primatiale est marquée par une forte polarisation des activités au niveau du centre historique. Cette répartition déséquilibrée est à l’origine des dysfonctionnements territoriaux quotidiens. Le caractère immatériel de la manifestation des nouvelles technologies semble représenter alors un moyen pour atténuer les effets de la question cruciale de la déficience de l’aménagement du territoire, notamment en termes de mobilités. Ainsi, grâce aux usages d’Internet, quelques pratiques urbaines dans divers domaines d’activités se déroulent sur le cyberespace. Mais en raison de leurs impacts peu conséquents sur les territoires réels, les attentes parfois exagérés des acteurs gouvernementaux, la société civile et les opérateurs, tardent à se concrétiser. En effet, malgré la bonne connexion du pays à la dorsale internationale, le taux de pénétration d’Internet au Sénégal ne permet pas pour le moment d’infléchir les dysfonctionnements. En réalité, sur le web sénégalais, la dynamique des usages associés aux pratiques urbaines n’a pas fait émerger de véritables liens entre Internet et l’aménagement territorial urbain à Dakar / Since the turn of the century, communications play a key role thanks to information technology. We now talk of a global community of information, shrinking our planet to a mere ‘global village’. Nevertheless, the countries of the developing countries still lingering outside this network, have trouble catching up. However IT industries are picking up slowly in keeping with the reality of the social and economic developments in these countries. In Dakar, for instance, mobile phones have become increasingly popular while the Internet, the key element to a numerical revolution, has been rather slow to take root in the urban environment. Moreover, Dakar seems to suffer from a lack of balance when it comes to the activities of its historical city center, due to a seemingly malfunctioning of its territorial administration. Information technology which requires few material investments could reduce the effects of this imbalance and the deficiency in its infra structure, making it possible for a variety of activities to take place in a cyberspace. In fact, inspite of efficient connection of the country with the international networking, it still is not enough to cope with the malfunctions of its local infrastructure. Thus the network in Senegal does not reveal truly strong links between the Internet and urban territorial infrastructures in Dakar

M.Com. (Informatics) / Cyber issues are global phenomena in a world of inter-related systems, and as such, the discussion on cybersecurity frameworks, policies and strategies inevitably requires reference to, and benchmarking with regional, continental and global trends and solutions. This, in the context of the effects of globalisation on developing countries, with specific reference to areas such as Africa as a developing continent with regard to the protection of its cyberspace. More drastic measures, such as the utilization of cyber warfare techniques and pre-emptive cyber strike-teams in addition to traditional cybersecurity mechanisms as an essential part of a national security effort to protect cyberspace has become more prevalent within the developed worlds. Likewise, developing nations need to gear themselves in a structured, coordinated and responsible way in order to do their part to secure their own environments. Cyberspace is a dynamic global environment with cyber related issues being a global concern. Although countries generally regulate their own cyber environment through policy; cross-border cyber issues are difficult to resolve and the lack of international cyber laws impede cybersecurity efforts. Cybercrime and the management of cross-border cyber incidents are becoming a growing national security concern as the lack of effective controls leave critical infrastructure and the cyber-connected environment vulnerable to attack. Some developing countries are on track with the maturity of their cybersecurity initiatives, but appropriate cybersecurity frameworks for many developing countries require careful consideration, especially due to the lack of resources, infrastructure and local technology development capabilities.

Thesis (M.M. (Security))--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, Graduate School of Public and Development Management, 2016 / Technological advancement have seen South African government departments, state owned entities and private companies using cyberspace as a platform of interaction and the storage of information. Technological advancements have a positive impact due to the compression of space, time and thereby ensuring fastpaced interaction across borders. These technological advancements have, however resulted in most organisations, both private and public, becoming prone to cybercrimes and related incidents. In an initiative aimed at countering these threats, the South African government has passed various laws. The National Cybersecurity Policy Framework (NCPF) is a South African Policy framework aimed at countering an increase in the occurrence of cybercrimes and related incidents. This research analyses the status in the implementation of the NCPF objectives allocated to the Department of Telecommunications and Postal Services (DTPS). Then the barriers in the Implementation are unpacked guided by the literature reviewed and finally recommendations on how to counter the identified barriers are provided post the data collection. The report firstly provides an outline of the global perspectives on cybersecurity which is followed by the regional cybersecurity measures, and then the national cybersecurity measures proposed by the South African Government department are outlined. The latter parts of the report focuses on the NCPF in terms of its scope, goals, objectives and stakeholders. Finally, focus is shifted to the DTPS as a chosen area of research wherein data was collected in a form of one-on-one, semi-structured interviews with relevant parties. The results of this research are presented as a narrative description that is synthesised to develop the theoretical conjecture and empirical generalisation of the entire research. This research uncovered that there are numerous barriers in the implementation of the NCPF both within the DTPS as well as between the DTPS and various stakeholders entrusted with the implementation responsibility. The last chapter consists of general conclusions made by the researcher based on the research conducted which is then followed by recommended countermeasures which will be communicated to the DTPS as well as all stakeholders who will be affected by the proposed recommendations. / GR2018