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Fluorescent labeling is a method used for visualization of various types of biomolecules including proteins and protein complexes. However, the effect of protein labeling on protein structure and functions has not been investigated so far. The goal of the diploma thesis was to examine an influence of NHS-fluorescein binding on structure and function of human carbonic anhydrase I (hCA-I). The particular aims of this work were to prepare recombinant 15N-hCA-I which was used for NMR structure analysis of carbonic anhydrase upon fluorescent labeling. Furthermore, enzyme activity was measured in order to find out a correlation between the concentration of NHS- fluorescein and protein function. In addition, the reaction mixtures were systematically analyzed by ESI FT-ICR mass spectrometry. The analysis revealed experimental conditions for fluorescent labeling of human carbonic anhydrase I with minimal effect on protein structure and function. The results of this study show that the calculation of molar excess of NHS-fluorescein cannot rely on a simple procedure provided by manufacturer. However, due to decrease of enzyme activity upon fluorescent labeling, it is better to take into count the influence of NHS-fluorescein concentration on the relative enzymatic activity. Moreover, the calculation of molar...

Diss. (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Sveriges lantbruksuniv. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

Submitted by Marcos Anselmo (marcos.anselmo@unipampa.edu.br) on 2016-04-04T19:56:34Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Aryele Pinto Izaguirry.pdf: 1079082 bytes, checksum: 55e00f827b5ec4212e6829f225964fd8 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-04T19:56:34Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Aryele Pinto Izaguirry.pdf: 1079082 bytes, checksum: 55e00f827b5ec4212e6829f225964fd8 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-08-03 / O cádmio é um dos poluentes mais tóxicos, amplamente distribuído no meio ambiente. A exposição humana não-ocupacional ao cádmio resulta predominantemente da fumaça do cigarro, da poluição do ar e do consumo de alimentos e água contaminados por cádmio. Este metal apresenta uma baixa taxa de excreção no organismo e um elevado tempo de meia-vida biológico e por esta razão, o cádmio se acumula no sangue, rins e fígado, bem como nos órgãos reprodutivos, incluindo placenta, testículos e ovários. A exposição ao cádmio está fortemente associada com toxicidade reprodutiva em animais e humanos, culminando em infertilidade e câncer nos tecidos reprodutivos. A patogênese do dano ovariano e a redução da viabilidade folicular após exposição ao cádmio tem sido associada a danos oxidativos. Assim, compostos antioxidantes poderiam ser uma terapia alternativa frente a toxicidade do cádmio. Estudos tem sugerido que a ingestão de frutas e vegetais com propriedades antioxidantes podem ajudar na prevenção de várias doenças. A fruta mirtilo (Vaccinium ashei Reade) é uma das fontes mais ricas de antioxidantes fitoquímicos, entre frutas e legumes. Sendo assim, verificou-se o potencial antioxidante do extrato de mirtilo in vitro, o qual demonstrou atividade scavenger de espécies de reativas (ER) e radical DPPH. Este extrato apresentou elevado conteúdo de polifenóis (558,27 μg EAG/mL). Posteriormente, avaliou-se o efeito do extrato hidro-alcoólico de mirtilo sobre o dano ovariano induzido por exposição sub-crônica de camundongas ao cádmio. Os animais receberam CdCl2 (2,5 mg/Kg) por via subcutânea e extrato de mirtilo (2,5mg/Kg) por via oral por 3 semanas (5 dias por semana). Os animais foram eutanasiados 24 horas após a última administração, e os ovários foram removidos para determinar atividade das enzimas glutationa peroxidase (GPx), glutationa-S-transferase (GST), δ-aminolevulinato-desidratase δ-(ALA-D), 17 β-hidroxiesteróide desidrogenase (17β-HSD), determinação dos níveis de espécies reativas, quantificação de cádmio e avaliação da viabilidade folicular. Os resultados demonstraram que os animais que receberam cádmio apresentaram um aumento de 2 vezes nos níveis de espécies reativas, redução na atividade das enzimas δ-ALA-D e 17β-HSD (30 e 39% de redução, respectivamente) e uma redução de 69% da viabilidade folicular em comparação ao grupo controle. Nenhuma alteração foi observada na atividade das enzimas GPx e GST ovarianas. A terapia foi eficaz em restaurar os níveis de ER, a atividade da δ-ALA-D e melhorou parcialmente a viabilidade folicular alterada pela exposição sub-crônica ao cádmio. No entanto, esta terapia não foi capaz de restaurar a atividade 17β-HSD, o que sugere que o efeito protetor do mirtilo não está relacionado com a atividade hormonal. Desta forma, verificou-se que o cádmio se acumula em ovários de camundongas após exposição subcrônica causando dano neste tecido e o extrato hidroalcoólico de mirtilo apresenta propriedades antioxidantes que poderiam proteger, ao menos em parte, o tecido ovariano dos efeitos tóxicos do cádmio. / Cadmium is one of the most toxic pollutants which is widely distributed in the environment. Non-occupational human exposure to cadmium predominantly results from cigarette smoke, air pollution and consumption of cadmium contaminated foods and water. This metal presents a low rate of excretion from the body and a long biological half-life and for this reason cadmium accumulates over time in blood, kidney, and liver as well as in the reproductive organs, including the placenta, testis, and ovaries. Cadmium exposure is strongly associated with reproductive toxicity in both animal and human populations culminating in infertility and cancers in reproductive tissues. The pathogenesis of ovarian damage and reduction of follicle viability following cadmium exposure is generally ascribed to oxidative damage. Thus, antioxidant compounds could be an alternative therapy against cadmium toxicity. Emergent evidences suggest that eating more fruits and vegetables with antioxidant properties could help in preventing of several diseases. The blueberry (Vaccinium ashei Reade) fruit is one of the richest sources of antioxidant phytochemicals among fruits and vegetables. This way, we verified the in vitro antioxidant potential of the blueberry extract, which demonstrated a significant DPPH radical and reactive species (RS) scavenger activities. This extract showed high total polyphenol content (558.27 μg GAE/mL). After, this study evaluated the protective role of hydro-alcoholic extract of blueberry on the follicular viability and ovarian oxidative damage induced by sub-chronic cadmium exposure in mice. Mice received CdCl2 (2.5 mg / kg) subcutaneously and blueberry extract (2.5 mg/ kg) orally for 3 weeks (5 days weekly). Animals were euthanized after 24 hours the last administration, and ovaries were removed to determinate the glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), δ-aminolevulinate dehydratase (δ-ALA-D) and 17 β-dehydrogenase hydroxysteroide (17β-HSD) enzymatic activities, RS levels, cadmium content and the follicles viability. The results demonstrated that animals cadmium-exposed presented a enhance of 2-folds on reactive species levels, reduction in δ-ALA-D and 17β-HSD activities (30 and 39% of reduction, respectively) as well as a decrease around 69% on follicular viability when compared with control group. No alteration was observed on ovarian GPx and GST activities. The therapy was effective in restoring RS levels, δ-ALA-D activity and partially improves the follicles viability altered by sub-chronic cadmium exposure. However, this therapy was not able to restore 17β-HSD activity, which suggest that the protective effect of blueberry is not related to hormonal activity. Thus, we verified that cadmium accumulates in mice ovary after sub-chronic exposure causing damage on this tissue and blueberry hydro-alcoholic extract presents antioxidant properties that could protect, at least in part, ovarian tissue from cadmium toxic effect.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Mercury (Hg) is a divalent metal found liquid at room temperature without biological functions and anthropogenically released in industrial, agricultural activities and burning of fossil fuels. Toxic effects caused by exposure to this metal are related to the interaction of different biochemical processes due to its affinity for sulfhydryl groups (SH). This damage depends on the time of exposure and the development period in which the individuals are exposed. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of a single subcutaneous dose of inorganic Hg in virgin, pregnant and lactating rats, as well as the protective effect of zinc (Zn) and N-acetylcysteine (NAC). For this, three experimental protocols were used: I) Virgin female rats were treated with ZnCl2 (27 mg/kg) and/or NAC (5 mg/kg) or saline (0.9%) and 24 hours after with HgCl2 (5 mg/kg) or saline (Article 1). II) Pregnant or lactating rats were treated with ZnCl2 (27 mg/kg) and/or NAC (5 mg/kg) or saline (0.9%) and 24 hours after with HgCl2 (10 mg/kg) or saline (manuscript I). III) Renal and hepatic analysis of virgin, pregnant and lactating rats exposed to a dose of HgCl2 (5 mg/kg) or saline (manuscript II). In all protocols euthanasia was performed 24 hours after the last treatment and the tissues removed and prepared for analysis. Protocols I and II focused primarily on biochemical parameters in different tissues and protocol III in morphological evaluations and protein expression in the kidneys and liver. Virgin rats exposed to Hg showed inhibition of the δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALA-D) activity in all tissues analyzed, changes in serum markers of hepatic (alanine aminotransferase [ALT] and aspartate aminotransferase [AST]) and renal (creatinine and urea) damage, morphological damage, and changes in proteins related to oxidative stress expression, for instance, mitofusin 2 (MFN2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), heat shock protein 27 (HSP27) and glucose regulated protein 75 (GRP75). Pregnant and lactating rats exposed to mercury showed milder changes than virgin rats, including no inhibition of hepatic δ-ALA-D or alterations of proteins related to oxidative stress and few morphological damage. Pregnant and lactating rats still showed physiologically higher levels of metallothionein (MT) in the liver and larger glomerulus diameter than virgin rats. The results suggest greater resistance of pregnant and lactating rats to Hg compared with virgin rats. This difference may be related to increase of hepatic MT levels induced by pregnancy and lactation. This protein is synthesized in the liver and plays an important chelator role,. making substances, such as Hg, less harmful. The treatment with Zn and NAC showed promising results against damage caused by Hg, probably by induction of MT synthesis caused by Zn and by chelating action of NAC. In both situations occur the capture of Hg. The metal bound to MT or NAC is neutralized and consequently has lower toxicity effects. / O mercúrio (Hg) é um metal bivalente encontrado líquido a temperatura ambiente, sem funções biológicas e antropogenicamente liberado em atividades industriais, agricultura e queima de combustíveis fósseis. Os efeitos tóxicos causados pela exposição a esse metal estão relacionados à sua interação com diferentes processos bioquímicos devido a sua afinidade por grupos sulfidrílicos (SH). Estes danos dependem do tempo de exposição e do período de desenvolvimento em que os indivíduos são expostos. Com isso, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar os efeitos do Hg inorgânico, em dose única subcutânea, em ratas virgens, gestantes e lactantes, bem como, a capacidade protetora do zinco (Zn) e da N-acetilcisteína (NAC). Para isso, adotamos três protocolos experimentais: I) Ratas virgens foram tratadas com ZnCl2 (27 mg/kg) e/ou NAC (5 mg/kg) ou salina (0,9%) e 24 horas após com HgCl2 (5 mg/kg) ou salina (artigo 1). II) Ratas gestantes e lactantes tratadas com ZnCl2 (27 mg/kg) e/ou NAC (5 mg/kg) ou salina (0,9%) e 24 horas após com HgCl2 (10 mg/kg) ou salina (manuscrito I). III) Análise renal e hepática de ratas virgens, gestantes e lactantes expostas a uma dose de HgCl2 (5 mg/kg) ou salina (manuscrito II). Em todos os protocolos a eutanásia foi realizada 24 horas após o último tratamento e os tecidos retirados e preparados para as análises. Os protocolos I e II tiveram como foco principal parâmetros bioquímicos em diferentes tecidos e o protocolo III em avaliações morfológicas, expressão proteica em rins e fígado. Ratas virgens expostas ao Hg apresentaram inibição da atividade da δ-aminolevulinato desidratase (δ-ALA-D) em todos os tecidos analisados, alterações em marcadores hepáticos (alanina aminotransferase [ALT] e aspartato aminotransferase [AST]) e renais (creatinina e ureia), além de danos morfológicos e alteração na expressão de proteínas relacionadas ao estresse oxidativo, como a mitofusina 2 (MFN2), óxido nítrico sintetase induzível (iNOS), proteína de choque térmico 27 (HSP27) e proteína reguladora de glicose 75 (GRP75). Ratas gestantes e lactantes expostas ao Hg apresentaram alterações mais brandas que ratas virgens, inclusive sem inibição da δ-ALA-D hepática ou distúrbios em proteínas relacionadas com dano oxidativo, bem como poucos danos morfológicos em rins e fígado. Ratas gestantes e lactantes apresentaram altos níveis hepáticos de metalotioneínas (MT) e aumento no diâmetro glomerular em relação as ratas virgens. Os resultados sugerem maior resistência de ratas gestantes e lactantes ao Hg quando comparadas com ratas virgens. Esta diferença pode ser relacionada ao aumento nos níveis hepáticos de MT induzidos pela gestação e lactação. Essa proteína é sintetizada principalmente no fígado e desempenha importante função quelante, tornando substâncias como o Hg, menos nocivas. Os tratamentos com Zn e NAC, mostraram resultados promissores contra os danos causados pelo Hg, provavelmente pela indução da síntese de MT causada pelo Zn, e pela ação quelante da NAC. Em ambas as situações ocorre a captura do Hg. O metal ligado a MT ou a NAC é neutralizado e consequentemente apresenta menor toxicidade.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The aim of this study was to compare the effects of mercuric chloride (HgCl2) on renal and hepatic parameters in adult non-lactating and lactating rats and their pups and to assess the potential preventive role of Zn, given as zinc chloride (ZnCl2), on the nephrotoxic and hepatotoxic effects caused by exposure to inorganic mercury. Nonlactating and lactating rats were pre-exposed to a daily dose of ZnCl2 (27 mg/kg/day; s.c.) or saline 0.9% during five consecutive days and to a daily dose of HgCl2 (5 mg/kg/day; s.c.) or saline 0.9% for the five subsequent days. The exposure of lactating rats to metals began on day 3 of lactation. Suckling pups were exposed to metals exclusively through maternal milk. Animals were observed daily throughout the study for signs of toxicity and mortality. Water and food consumption of lactating and nonlactating rats were monitored daily during the entire period of exposure to metals. Animals were euthanized 24 h after the last dose of HgCl2 and tissue samples were collected (blood, kidney and liver) to analyze the following parameters: daminolevulinic acid dehydratase (d-ALA-D) activity; biochemical parameters indicative of renal (plasma urea and creatinine levels) and hepatic (plasma AST, ALT and LDH activities) toxicity and the metal levels (Hg and Zn) in all tissues studied. In nonlactating rats, the survival rate; food consumption; body and kidney weights; blood and renal d-ALA-D activity; plasma urea and creatinine levels; plasma ALT and AST activities; renal histology; blood Zn levels and blood, kidney and liver Hg levels were significantly affected by HgCl2 exposure. Previous exposure to ZnCl2 prevented some of the effects of mercury, such as: decrease in survival rate, increase in plasma urea and creatinine levels, inhibition in blood (partially) and renal d-ALA-D activity, the increase in plasma AST (partially) activity and the decrement in blood Zn levels. In contrast, ZnCl2 was unable to prevent the effects of mercury on the decrease in food consumption and in body and kidney weights, inhibition of plasma ALT activity, renal histological alterations and on the increased Hg levels in tissues. In lactating rats, food consumption, body and kidney weights, blood and hepatic d-ALA-D activity, plasma ALT activity and Hg levels in blood and kidneys were significantly modified by HgCl2 exposure. Previous exposure to ZnCl2 was not able to prevent any physiological and biochemical changes induced by HgCl2 exposure. Moreover, the pre-exposure to ZnCl2 potentiated the effects of HgCl2 exposure on retention of Hg in renal and hepatic tissues and induced histological alterations in the liver (which were not observed when lactating rats were exposed to HgCl2 alone). In pups, body weight gain, absolute kidney and liver weights and retention of Hg in these tissues were significantly altered by indirect exposure to heavy metal through maternal milk. None of these changes were prevented by pre-exposure of their mothers to ZnCl2. Taken together, this study showed for the first time that lactating rats exposed to HgCl2 presented distinct biochemical responses comparing to non-lactating rats when renal and hepatic parameters were evaluated. Furthermore, these results showed that mercury is transferred to the pups through maternal milk and that mercury levels available to pups were not sufficient to induce any change in biochemical parameters evaluated. The preventive effect of ZnCl2 on renal toxicity induced by HgCl2 in non-lactating rats suggests effectively that it serves as a promising alternative for the preventive treatment of inorganic mercury poisoning cases; however, since pre-exposure to ZnCl2 potentiated the effects of HgCl2 on mercury levels in kidney and liver and induced histological changes in hepatic tissue of lactating rats, we suggest that ZnCl2 should be used with caution during lactation and that more studies are necessary to ensure the safety of its use in this period. / O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar os efeitos da exposição ao cloreto de mercúrio (HgCl2) sobre parâmetros renais e hepáticos em ratas adultas não-lactantes e ratas lactantes e seus filhotes, e avaliar o possível efeito preventivo do zinco (Zn), administrado na forma de cloreto de zinco (ZnCl2), sobre os efeitos nefro e hepatotóxicos causados pela exposição ao mercúrio inorgânico. As ratas lactantes e nãolactantes foram pré-expostas a uma dose diária de ZnCl2 (27 mg/kg/dia; s.c.) ou solução salina 0,9% durante cinco dias. Nos cinco dias subsequentes, as ratas foram expostas a uma dose diária de HgCl2 (5 mg/kg/dia; s.c.) ou salina 0,9%. A exposição das ratas lactantes aos metais iniciou-se no 3º dia de lactação. Os filhotes foram expostos aos metais exclusivamente via leite materno. Os animais foram observados diariamente quanto aos sinais de toxicidade e mortalidade. O consumo de água e de ração das ratas lactantes e não-lactantes foi monitorado diariamente durante o período de exposição aos metais. Os animais foram eutanaziados 24 horas após a administração da última dose de HgCl2. Amostras de sangue, rim e fígado foram retiradas para a análise dos seguintes parâmetros: atividade da enzima d-aminolevulinato desidratase (d-ALA-D); parâmetros bioquímicos indicativos de toxicidade renal (níveis plasmáticos de uréia e creatinina) e hepática (atividade das enzimas AST, ALT e LDH plasmáticas) e os níveis de metais (Hg e Zn) nos tecidos estudados. Nas ratas não-lactantes, a taxa de sobrevivência, o consumo de ração, os pesos do corpo e dos rins, a atividade da enzima d-ALA-D sanguínea e renal, os níveis plasmáticos de uréia e creatinina, a atividade das enzimas AST e ALT plasmáticas, a histologia do tecido renal, os níveis de zinco no sangue e os níveis de mercúrio no sangue, rins e fígado foram significativamente alterados pela exposição ao HgCl2. A exposição prévia ao ZnCl2 preveniu alguns dos efeitos induzidos pelo mercúrio, tais como: a diminuição na taxa de sobrevivência, o aumento nos níveis plasmáticos de uréia e creatinina, a inibição da atividade da enzima d-ALA-D sanguínea (parcialmente) e renal, o aumento na atividade da AST (parcialmente) e a diminuição dos níveis sanguíneos de zinco. Por outro lado, o ZnCl2 não foi capaz de prevenir os efeitos do mercúrio sobre a diminuição do consumo de ração e dos pesos corporal e renal, a inibição da atividade da ALT, as alterações histológicas e os níveis de mercúrio nos tecidos. Nas lactantes, o consumo de ração, os pesos do corpo e dos rins, a atividade das enzimas d-ALA-D sanguínea e hepática e ALT plasmática, os níveis de zinco no sangue e os níveis de mercúrio no sangue e nos rins foram significativamente alterados pela exposição ao HgCl2. A pré-exposição ao ZnCl2 não preveniu nenhuma das alterações bioquímicas e fisiológicas induzidas pela exposição ao HgCl2. Além disso, essa pré-exposição potencializou o acúmulo de mercúrio nos tecidos renal e hepático e induziu o aparecimento de alterações histológicas no fígado, as quais não foram observadas nas ratas lactantes expostas exclusivamente ao HgCl2. Em relação aos filhotes, o ganho de peso corporal, os pesos absolutos de rins e fígado e o acúmulo de mercúrio nesses tecidos foram significativamente alterados pela exposição indireta ao metal tóxico via leite materno. Nenhuma dessas alterações foram prevenidas pela exposição prévia das lactantes ao ZnCl2. Este estudo demonstrou, pela primeira vez, que as ratas lactantes expostas ao HgCl2 apresentam respostas bioquímicas distintas em relação as ratas adultas não-lactantes quando analisados parâmetros renais e hepáticos de toxicidade. Além disso, estes resultados demonstram que o mercúrio é transferido aos filhotes via leite materno e que os níveis de mercúrio disponíveis não são suficientes para alterar os parâmetros bioquímicos analisados. O papel preventivo do ZnCl2 sobre a toxicidade renal induzida pelo HgCl2 nas ratas não-lactantes sugere efetivamente que ele serve como alternativa promissora no tratamento preventivo dos casos de exposição ao mercúrio inorgânico. Entretanto, uma vez que a pré-exposição ao ZnCl2 potencializou os efeitos do HgCl2 sobre os níveis de mercúrio em rim e fígado e induziu alterações histológicas no tecido hepático de ratas lactantes, sugere-se que o ZnCl2 deva ser usado com cautela durante o período da lactação e que mais estudos são necessários para certificar-se da segurança de seu uso nesse período.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Lead is a heavy metal that accumulates primarily in kidney, where exerts its nephrotoxic effects. Several studies suggest that the oxidative stress is an important molecular mechanism for the toxic effects of lead in kidney and in other organs. Cytosolic thioredoxin reductase (TrxR1) is a selenoflavoprotein involved in many processes modulating intracellular reactive oxygen species levels. The aims of this study were to evaluate the effects of acute and chronic exposure to lead acetate on renal TrxR1 activity and on other oxidative stress parameters (d-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase activity, glutathione Stransferase, non-protein thiol groups, lipid peroxidation, and antioxidant enzymes in kidneys), as well as on plasmatic indicators of renal function (creatinine, uric acid and phosphate) in rats. In acute exposure, rats received a single intraperitoneal injection of 25 or 50 mg/kg lead acetate and were killed 6, 24 or 48 h later. In chronic exposure, rats received a daily intraperitoneal injection of lead acetate (5 or 25 mg/kg) during 30 days and were killed at 31st day. In our study, acute exposure to 25 mg/kg lead acetate increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) and TrxR-1 activity (after 6, 24, and 48 h), while exposure to 50 mg/kg lead acetate increased catalase (CAT) activity (after 48h) and inhibited d-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALA-D) activity (after 6, 24, and 48 hs) in kidneys (P < 0.05). Chronic exposure to 5 mg/kg lead acetate inhibited δ-ALA-D and increased glutathione S-transferase (GST), non protein sulfhydryl groups (NPSH), CAT, TrxR-1, and uric acid plasma levels, while exposure to 25 mg/kg lead acetate reduced body weight and δ -ALA-D, but increased GST, NPSH, and uric acid plasma levels (P < 0.05). No changes were observed in thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, glutathione peroxidase, creatinine or inorganic phosphate levels after either acute or chronic exposure. In conclusion, lead exposure caused a marked increase in the TrxR1 activity in the kidney of rats and this change may be an early indicator of acute exposure to low lead doses. However, further studies are needed to clarify the biological meaning of this induction as well as the mechanism involved in such effect. / O chumbo é um metal pesado que acumula-se preferencialmente nos rins, onde exerce seus efeitos nefrotóxicos. Muitos estudos sugerem que o estresse oxidativo seja um importante mecanismo molecular para os efeitos tóxicos do chumbo no rim e em outros órgãos. A tioredoxina redutase citosólica (TrxR1) é uma selenoflavoproteína envolvida em muitos processos reguladores dos níveis intracelulares de espécies reativas de oxigênio. Os objetivos deste estudo foram avaliar os efeitos da exposição aguda e crônica ao acetato de chumbo sobre a atividade da TrxR1 renal e sobre outros parâmetros de estresse oxidativo (atividade da δ-aminolevulinato desidratase, glutationa S-transferase, grupos tiólicos nãoprotéicos, peroxidação lipídica e enzimas antioxidantes nos rins), bem como sobre os indicadores plasmáticos da função renal (creatinina, ácido úrico e fosfato) em ratos. Na exposição aguda, os ratos receberam uma única injeção intraperitoneal de 25 ou 50 mg/kg de acetato de chumbo e foram mortos 6, 24 ou 48 horas mais tarde. Na exposição crônica, os ratos receberam uma injeção intraperitoneal diária de acetato de chumbo (5 ou 25 mg/kg) durante 30 dias e foram mortos no 31° dia. Em nosso estudo, a exposição aguda a 25 mg/kg de acetato de chumbo aumentou a atividade da superóxido dismutase (SOD) e da TrxR1 (após 6, 24 e 48 h), enquanto que a exposição a 50 mg/kg de acetato de chumbo aumentou a atividade da catalase (CAT) (após 48 h) e inibiu a atividade da δ-aminolevulinato desidratase (δ-ALA-D) (após 6, 24, 48 h) nos rins (p<0,05). A exposição crônica a 5 mg/kg de acetato de chumbo inibiu a δ-ALA-D e aumentou a glutationa S-transferase (GST), níveis de grupos tiólicos não-protéicos (SHNP), CAT, TrxR1 e níveis plasmáticos de ácido úrico (p<0,05), enquanto que a exposição a 25 mg/kg de acetato de chumbo reduziu o peso corporal e a δ-ALA-D, mas aumentou a GST, SHNP e os níveis plasmáticos de ácido de ácido úrico (p<0,05). Não houve alterações nos níveis de substâncias reativas ao ácido tiobarbitúrico (TBARS), na atividade da glutationa peroxidase (GPx) e nos níveis plasmáticos de creatinina e fosfato inorgânico tanto após a exposição aguda como após a exposição crônica. Conclui-se que a exposição ao chumbo causou um aumento significativo na atividade da TrxR1 renal de ratos e esta alteração pode ser um indicador primário da exposição aguda a baixas doses de chumbo. Entretanto, será necessária a realização de mais estudos para elucidar o significado biológico desta indução, bem como o mecanismo envolvido em tal efeito.

Metabolism of D-amino acids is of considerable interest due to their key importance in cellular functions. The enzymes D-serine dehydratase (DSD) and D-cysteine desulfhydrase (DCyD) are involved in the degradation of D-Ser and D-Cys, respectively. We determined the crystal structure of Salmonella typhimurium DSD (StDSD) by multiple anomalous dispersion method of phasing using selenomethione incorporated protein crystals. The structure revealed a fold typical of fold type II PLP-dependent enzymes. Although holoenzyme was used for crystallization of both wild type StDSD (WtDSD) and selenomethionine labeled StDSD (SeMetDSD), significant electron density was not observed for the co-factor, indicating that the enzyme has a low affinity for the cofactor under crystallization conditions. Interestingly, unexpected conformational differences were observed between the two structures. The WtDSD was in an open conformation while SeMetDSD, crystallized in the presence of isoserine, was in a closed conformation suggesting that the enzyme is likely to undergo conformational changes upon binding of substrate as observed in other fold type II PLP-dependent enzymes. Electron density corresponding to a plausible sodium ion was found near the active site of the closed but not in the open state of the enzyme. Examination of the active site and substrate modeling suggested that Thr166 may be involved in abstraction of proton from the Cα atom of the substrate. Apart from the physiological reaction, StDSD catalyses α, β-elimination of D-Thr, D-Allothr and L-Ser to the corresponding α-keto acids and ammonia. The structure of StDSD provides a molecular framework necessary for understanding differences in the rate of reaction with these substrates. Salmonella typhimurium DCyD (StDCyD) is a fold type II PLP-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the degradation of D-Cys to H2S and pyruvate. We determined the crystal structure of StDCyD using molecular replacement method in two different crystal forms. The better diffracting crystal form obtained in presence of benzamidine illustrated the influence a small molecule in altering protein interfaces and crystal packing. The polypeptide fold of StDCyD consists of a small domain (residues 48-161) and a large domain (residues 1-47 and 162-328) which resemble other fold type II PLP-dependent enzymes. X-ray crystal structures of StDCyD were also obtained in the presence of substrates, D-Cys and βCDA, and substrate analogs, ACC, D-Ser, L-Ser, D-cycloserine (DCS) and L-cycloserine (LCS). The structures obtained in the presence of D-Cys and βCDA show the product, pyruvate, bound at a site 4.0-6.0 Å away from the active site. ACC forms an external aldimine complex while D and L-Ser bind non-covalently suggesting that the reaction with these ligands is arrested at Cα proton abstraction and transimination steps, respectively. In the active site of StDCyD cocrystallized with DCS or LCS, electron density for a pyridoxamine phosphate (PMP) was observed. Crystals soaked in cocktail containing these ligands show density for PLP-cycloserine. Spectroscopic observations also suggested formation of PMP by the hydrolysis of cycloserines. Mutational studies suggested that Ser78 and Gln77 are key determinants of enzyme specificity and the phenolate of Tyr287 is responsible for Cα proton abstraction from D-Cys. Based on these studies, we proposed a probable mechanism for the degradation of D-Cys by StDCyD. The acid-induced arginine decarboxylase (ADC) is part of an enzymatic system in Salmonella typhimurium that contributes to making this organism acid resistant. ADC is a PLP-dependent enzyme that is active at acidic pH. It consumes a proton in the decarboxylation of arginine to agmatine, and by working in tandem with an arginine-agmatine antiporter, this enzymatic cycle protects the organism by preventing the accumulation of protons inside the cell. We have determined the structure of the acid-induced StADC to 3.1 Å resolution. StADC structure revealed an 800 kDa decamer composed as a pentamer of five homodimers. Each homodimer has an abundance of acidic surface residues, which at neutral pH prevent inactive homodimers from associating into active decamers. Conversely, acidic conditions favor the assembly of active decamers. Therefore, the structure of arginine decarboxylase presents a mechanism by which its activity is modulated by external pH.

The emergence of drug resistant strains of Plasmodium has given a new face to the old disease, malaria. One of the approaches is to block metabolic pathways of the pathogen. The current thesis describes the X-ray crystallographic analysis of two enzymes of the fatty acid biosynthesis pathway of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. In order to understand the functional mechanism and mode of inhibitor binding, enzyme-inhibitor complexes were characterized, which could help in further improvement of the efficacy of the inhibitors and hence to fight against the disease. The introductory chapter of the thesis presents a discussion on malaria and different metabolic pathways of the pathogen which could be suitable targets for novel antimalarials. In continuation to that, the pathway of our choice the fatty acid biosynthesis and an overview of the structural features of the enzymes involved in the pathway that have been characterized from different organisms are also described. The second chapter includes the tools of X-ray crystallography that were used for structural studies of the present work. It also discusses the biochemical, biophysical and other computational methods used to further characterize the enzymes under study. Triclosan, a well known inhibitor of Enoyl Acyl Carrier Protein Reductase (FabI) from several pathogenic organisms, is a promising lead compound to design effective drugs. The X-ray crystal structures of Plasmodium falciparum FabI (PfFabI), in complex with triclosan variants having different substituted and unsubstituted groups at different key functional locations, were determined and compared with triclosan binding which form the basis of chapter 3. The structures revealed that 4 and 2’ substituted compounds have more interactions with the protein, cofactor and solvent molecules as compared to triclosan. New water molecules were found to interact with some of these inhibitors. Substitution at the 2’ position of triclosan caused the relocation of a conserved water molecule, leading to an additional hydrogen bond with the inhibitor. This observation can help in conserved water based inhibitor design. 2’ and 4’ unsubstituted compounds showed a movement away from the hydrophobic pocket to compensate for the interactions made by the halogen groups of triclosan. This compound also makes additional interactions with the protein and cofactor which compensates for the lost interactions due to the unsubstitution at 2’ and 4’. In cell culture, this inhibitor shows less potency, which indicates that the chlorines at 2’ and 4’ positions increase the ability of the inhibitor to cross multilayered membranes. This knowledge helps us to modify the different functional groups of triclosan to get more potent inhibitors. Certain residues in the substrate binding tunnel of PfFabI were mutated to identify the role of these residues in substrate binding and protein stability, which forms the 4th chapter of the thesis. The substrate binding site residue Ala372 of PfFabI has been mutated to Methionine and Valine which increased the affinity of the enzyme towards triclosan to almost double, close to that of Escherichia coli FabI (EcFabI) which has a Methionine at the structurally similar position of Ala372 of PfFabI. Kinetic studies of the mutants of PfFabI and the crystal structure analysis of the A372M mutant revealed that a more hydrophobic environment enhances the affinity of the enzyme for the inhibitor. A triclosan derivative showed a 3-fold increase in the affinity towards the mutants compared to the wild type, due to additional interactions with the A372M mutant as revealed by the crystal structure. The enzyme has a conserved salt bridge which stabilizes the substrate binding loop and appears to be important for the active conformation of the enzyme. A second set of mutants generated to check this hypothesis exhibited loss of function, except in one case where, the crystal structure showed that the substrate binding loop is stabilized by a water bridge network. The main focus of chapter 5 is β-Hydroxyacyl-acyl carrier protein dehydratase of Plasmoduim falciparum (PfFabZ) which catalyzes the third and important reaction of the fatty acid elongation cycle. The crystal structure of PfFabZ was available in its hexameric (active) and dimeric (inactive) forms. However, until now PfFabZ has not been crystallized with any bound inhibitors. We have designed a new condition to crystallize PfFabZ with its inhibitors bound in the active site, and determined the crystal structures of three of these complexes. This is the first report of the crystal structures of PfFabZ with competitive inhibitor complexes and the first such study on any FabZ enzyme with active site inhibitors. These inhibitors in the active site stabilize the substrate binding loop, revealing the substrate binding tunnel with an overall shape of “U”. In the crystal structure, the residue Phe169 located in the middle of the tunnel was found to be in two different conformations, open and closed, implying that it controls the length of the tunnel and makes it suitable for accommodating longer substrates merely by changing its side chain conformation. The hydrophobic nature of the substrate binding channel signifies the specificity for the hydrophobic tail of fatty acid substrates. The volume of the active site tunnel is determined by the sequence as well as by the conformation of the substrate binding site loop region and varies between organisms for accommodating fatty acids of different chain lengths. All PfFabZ inhibitors reported here bind to the active site through specific contacts like hydrogen bonds with catalytic residues and hydrophobic interactions. This report on the crystal structures of the complexes of PfFabZ provides the structural basis of the inhibitory mechanism of the enzyme, that could be used to improve the potency of inhibitors against an important component of fatty acid synthesis common to many infectious organisms. The hot dog fold has been found in more than sixty proteins since the first report of its existence about a decade ago. The fold appears to have a strong association with fatty acid biosynthesis, its regulation and metabolism, as the proteins with this fold are predominantly coenzyme A-binding enzymes with a variety of substrates located at their active sites. We have analyzed the structural features and sequences of proteins having the hot dog fold. This study reveals that though the basic architecture of the fold is well conserved in these proteins, significant differences exist in their sequence, nature of substrate and oligomerization. Segments with certain conserved sequence motifs seem to play crucial structural and functional roles in various classes of these proteins. The analysis discussed in chapter 6, led to predictions regarding the functional classification and identification of possible catalytic residues of a number of hot dog fold-containing hypothetical proteins whose structures were determined in high throughput structural genomics projects. Rv0098, predicted to be the FabZ of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, was cloned, expressed, purified, crystallized, and X-ray diffraction data were collected. Molecular replacement trials with all “hot dog” fold proteins failed to yield any significant solution due to the low sequence similarity (<20%) of Rv0098 compared to other FabZs. During the trials of structure solution by multiple isomorphous replacement method, structure of Rv0098 was published and it was shown to be a long-chain fatty acyl-CoA thioesterase (FcoT). The crystal structure of Rv0098 did not explain the molecular basis of substrate specificity of varying chain lengths. Molecular dynamics studies were carried out, which revealed that certain residues of the substrate binding tunnel are flexible and thus modulates the length of the tunnel. Flexibility of the loop at the base of the tunnel was also found to be important for determining the length of the tunnel for accommodating appropriate substrates. The structural basis of accommodating long chain substrates by Rv0098 is discussed in chapter 7, by combining the crystallographic and molecular dynamics studies. Part of the work presented in the thesis has been reported in the following publications. Karmodiya, K., Sajad, S., Sinha, S., Maity, K., Suguna, K. and Surolia, N. (2007) Conformational stability and thermodynamic characterization of homotetrameric Plasmodium falciparum beta-ketoacyl-ACP reductase. IUBMB Life 59, 441-9. Pidugu, L. S., Maity, K., Ramaswamy, K., Surolia, N. and Suguna, K. (2009) Analysis of proteins with the 'hot dog' fold: prediction of function and identification of catalytic residues of hypothetical proteins. BMC Struct Biol 9, 37. Kapoor, N., Banerjee, T., Babu, P., Maity, K., Surolia, N. and Surolia, A. (2009) Design, development, synthesis, and docking analysis of 2'-substituted triclosan analogs as inhibitors for Plasmodium falciparum enoyl-ACP reductase. IUBMB Life 61, 1083-91. Maity, K., Bhargav, S. P., Sankaran, B., Surolia, N., Surolia, A. and Suguna, K. (2010) X-ray crystallographic analysis of the complexes of enoyl acyl carrier protein reductase of Plasmodium falciparum with triclosan variants to elucidate the importance of different functional groups in enzyme inhibition. IUBMB Life 62, 467-76. Maity, K., Banerjee, T., Narayanappa, P., Surolia, N., Surolia, A. and Suguna, K. (2010) Effect of substrate binding loop mutations on the structure, kinetics and inhibition of Enoyl Acyl Carrier Protein Reductase from Plasmodium falciparum. (Communicated) Maity, K., Bharat, S. V., Kapoor, N., Surolia, N., Surolia, A. and Suguna, K. (2010) Insights into the functional and inhibitory mechanism of the β-Hydroxyacyl-Acyl Carrier Protein Dehydratase of Plasmodium falciparum from the crystal structures of its complexes with active site inhibitors. (Communicated)

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Mercury is a heavy metal toxic for any living tissue, being kidneys the first target for the inorganic form. Oxidative stress has been pointed as an important molecular mechanism for kidney injury in inorganic mercury poisoning and the interaction of the metal with endogenous thiol-containing molecules, such as δ-aminolevulinate desidratase (δ-ALA-D), seems to contribute to this process. Lycopene and astaxanthin are plentiful carotenoids in tomatoes and algaes and seafoods, respectively. They have been widely studied because of their large antioxidant properties. This work evaluated the ability of lycopene and astaxanthin to prevent HgCl2 toxicity, assessing parameters like δ-ALA-D and glutathione S-transferase (GST) activities, non-protein sulfhydrylic groups content (NPSH), production of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and activities of antioxidant enzymes like superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), and catalase (CAT), besides creatinine and uric acid plasma levels and histopathological analyses. Adult Wistar rats received lycopene or astaxanthin, by gavage, on doses of 0, 10, 25, or 50 mg/kg, six hours prior to the administration of 0 or 5 mg/kg HgCl2, yielding 8 experimental groups. After twelve hours of exposure to HgCl2 animals were killed. HgCl2 inhibited renal δ-ALA-D activity and increased TBARS levels in kidney and creatinine levels in plasma along with renal tubular necrosis. Lycopene prevented HgCl2-induced inhibition of δ-ALA-D activity and increase of lipid peroxidation in kidney, but not the increase in plasma creatinine levels or renal tubular necrosis caused by HgCl2. Although astaxanthin have not prevented HgCl2-induced inhibition of δ-ALA-D and increase in plasma creatinine levels, this carotenoid prevented lipid peroxidation and attenuated renal tubular necrosis caused by HgCl2. GPx and CAT activities were enhanced, while SOD activity was depressed, in mercury-treated rats when compared to control and these effects were prevented by some lycopene doses and by all astaxanthin doses evaluated. Some doses of lycopene negativelly affected antioxidant enzymes activities per se and the mechanism involved in this response has not been elucidated yet. Neither HgCl2 nor carotenoids treatment changed the content of NPSH groups or GST activity in kidney or uric acid levels in plasma. Our results indicate that although lycopene and astaxanthin did not prevent HgCl2-induced creatinine increase in plasma, changes in the activity of antioxidant enzymes might be limited by the use of these car / O mercúrio é um metal pesado com toxicidade comprovada, capaz de causar danos em qualquer tecido com o qual tenha contato, sendo o rim o principal alvo para sua forma inorgânica. O estresse oxidativo tem sido apontado como um importante mecanismo molecular para a injúria renal induzida por mercúrio inorgânico e a interação desse metal com moléculas contendo grupos sulfidrílicos, tais como a enzima δ-aminolevulinato desidratase (δ-ALA-D), parece contribuir para esse processo. Licopeno e astaxantina são carotenóides abundantes em tomates e em algas e frutos do mar, respectivamente. Ambos têm sido amplamente estudados por suas propriedades antioxidantes. No presente estudo foi avaliado o efeito do licopeno e da astaxantina sobre a toxicidade do HgCl2 em rins de ratos, utilizando-se como parâmetros a atividade das enzimas δ-ALA-D e glutationa Stransferase (GST), quantidade de grupos sulfidrílicos não protéicos (NPSH), produção de substâncias reativas ao ácido tiobarbitúrico (TBARS), atividade das enzimas antioxidantes superóxido dismutase (SOD), glutationa peroxidase (GSH-Px) e catalase (CAT), além dos níveis plasmáticos de creatinina e ácido úrico e análise histopatológica. Ratos Wistar adultos receberam, por gavage, licopeno ou astaxantina nas doses de 0, 10, 25 ou 50 mg/kg, seis horas antes de receberem uma injeção subcutânea de HgCl2 (0 ou 5 mg/kg), resultando assim, em 8 grupos experimentais. Após doze horas da exposição ao HgCl2, os animais foram sacrificados. O HgCl2 inibiu a δ-ALA-D renal, aumentou a produção de TBARS e níveis plasmáticos de creatinina, além de causar necrose tubular. O licopeno preveniu a inibição da δ-ALA-D e a peroxidação lipídica, mas não preveniu o aumento de creatinina no plasma nem a ocorrência de necrose tubular induzidos pelo HgCl2. Embora a astaxantina não tenha prevenido a inibição da δ-ALA-D e o aumento nos níveis plasmáticos de creatinina, este carotenóide preveniu a ocorrência da peroxidação lipídica e atenuou a necrose tubular causada pelo HgCl2. As atividades das enzimas GSH-Px e CAT aumentaram, enquanto a atividade da SOD diminuiu nos animais tratados com HgCl2 e esses efeitos foram prevenidos por algumas doses de licopeno e por todas as doses de astaxantina avaliadas. Algumas doses de licopeno tiveram efeito negativo sobre as enzimas antioxidantes per se e o mecanismo envolvido nessa resposta ainda não foi elucidado. O tratamento com HgCl2 ou carotenóides não alterou o conteúdo de NPSH ou a atividade da GST no tecido renal, nem os níveis plasmáticos de ácido úrico. Os resultados indicam que embora licopeno e astaxantina não tenham prevenido o aumento nos níveis plasmáticos de creatinina induzido por HgCl2, as alterações nas enzimas antioxidantes podem ser limitadas pelo uso destes carotenóides.