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BACKGROUND:Traditional morphological and biological species concepts are difficult to apply to closely related, asexual taxa because of the lack of an active sexual phase and paucity of morphological characters. Phylogenetic species concepts such as genealogical concordance phylogenetic species recognition (GCPSR) have been extensively used / however, methods that incorporate gene tree uncertainty into species recognition may more accurately and objectively delineate species. Using a worldwide sample of Alternaria alternata sensu lato, causal agent of citrus brown spot, the evolutionary histories of four nuclear loci including an endo-polygalacturonase gene, two anonymous loci, and one microsatellite flanking region were estimated using the coalescent. Species boundaries were estimated using several approaches including those that incorporate uncertainty in gene genealogies when lineage sorting and non-reciprocal monophyly of gene trees is common.RESULTS:Coalescent analyses revealed three phylogenetic lineages strongly influenced by incomplete lineage sorting and recombination. Divergence of the citrus 2 lineage from the citrus 1 and citrus 3 lineages was supported at most loci. A consensus of species tree estimation methods supported two species of Alternaria causing citrus brown spot worldwide. Based on substitution rates at the endo-polygalacturonase locus, divergence of the citrus 2 and the 1 and 3 lineages was estimated to have occurred at least 5, 400 years before present, predating the human-mediated movement of citrus and associated pathogens out of SE Asia.CONCLUSIONS:The number of Alternaria species identified as causing brown spot of citrus worldwide using morphological criteria has been overestimated. Little support was found for most of these morphospecies using quantitative species recognition approaches. Correct species delimitation of plant-pathogenic fungi is critical for understanding the evolution of pathogenicity, introductions of pathogens to new areas, and for regulating the movement of pathogens to enforce quarantines. This research shows that multilocus phylogenetic methods that allow for recombination and incomplete lineage sorting can be useful for the quantitative delimitation of asexual species that are morphologically indistinguishable. Two phylogenetic species of Alternaria were identified as causing citrus brown spot worldwide. Further research is needed to determine how these species were introduced worldwide, how they differ phenotypically and how these species are maintained.

In this thesis I have connected different evolutionary studies of Lioalemus lizards. In Chapter 1, I followed an integrative approach to delimit species in the Liolaemus walkeri complex. Using mitochondrial markers, morphological data, bioclimatic information and methods appropriate for each data type, we found that the name L. walkeri was covering three new lineages. Three new species were described and one of them (L. chavin) is now categorized as Near Threatened in the IUCN red list. In Chapter 2, I change the subject from species boundaries to the study of viviparity and placentation. In this paper we employed scanning electron and confocal microscopy to compare the placental ultra-structure and pattern of blood vessels in two Liolaemus species. One of the most remarkable traits found is the complete reduction of the eggshell in both placentae, a possible adaptation to improve gas exchange in the hypoxic environments of the high Andes. In chapter 3, I returned to the issue of species delimitation and employed two integrative approaches: a hypothetical deductive framework and a model-based procedure. I applied both approaches in lowland and highland Liolaemus species of the montanus group. I found that in only one case (of four) an unnamed lowland lineage ("Nazca") was delimited concordantly by both procedures. In Chapter 4, I focus on a study of convergent evolution of desert phenotype in Liolaemus species and Ctenoblepharys adspersa. I performed a Bayesian time calibrated and maximum likelihood tree based on 55 taxa and seven molecular markers. We employed quantitative and categorical traits based on 400 specimens and non-metric multidimensional scaling to obtain new quantitative variables. I used three phylogenetic comparative methods to identify and measure the strength of convergence. My results found a strong case of convergent traits in C. adspersa, L. lentus, L. manueli, L. poconchilensis and L. stolzmanni that are probably related to predator avoidance in the Peruvian-Atacama and Monte deserts. In addition, my time calibrated tree resolves the origin of these traits first in C. adspersa at about 80 million years (My) and later independently in Liolaemus species at about 25 My suggesting the present of evolutionary constraints.

Reklama Lietuvoje yra apibrėžiama daugelyje įstatymų, tačiau nei viename įstatyme nėra tiksliai reglamentuota, kokiais kriterijais remiantis reklamą reikėtų atskirti nuo kitos informacijos apie prekes ir paslaugas ar informacinių pranešimų. Šio darbo problema yra ta, kad esant draudžiamų reklamuoti sričių, institucijoms ir teismams yra sudėtinga atskirti, kada verslo subjektų pateikiamoje informacijoje yra reklamai būdingų bruožų ir kada ne. Neteisingo reklamos ir informacinio pobūdžio pranešimų interpretavimo pasekmė – didžiulės piniginės baudos įmonėms už neleistiną reklamą. Šiam darbui keliami uždaviniai yra šie: (1) Išanalizuoti reklamos sampratą ir įvardinti ją identifikuojančius bruožus; (2) Remiantis doktrina bei teismų jurisprudencija, nustatyti informacinio pobūdžio pranešimus ir reklamą apibūdinančius kriterijus atskirose srityse, kurie turėtų būti taikomi aiškinantis atribojimo klausimą; (3) Nustatyti, ar teismų praktikoje reklamos samprata atskirose srityse yra skirtinga, taip pat nustatyti, ar reikalinga naudoti skirtingus reklamos apibrėžimus skirtingoms sritims, taip leidžiant įstatymo leidėjui griežčiau vertinti informaciją apie visuomenei labiau pavojingus produktus ar paslaugas. Šio darbo tikslas – nagrinėjant reklamos sampratą teisiniu aspektu nustatyti kriterijus, kuriais remiantis būtų galima atriboti informacinio pobūdžio pranešimus nuo reklamos. Kadangi nagrinėjant šį klausimą yra neišvengiamas subjektyvumo aspektas, kurio įstatymai nereguliuoja... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Title of the thesis: the Issue of Informative Messages and Advertising Delimitation in the Context of Prohibited Advertising Areas. In Lithuania, a number of laws define advertising, however, none of them specifically regulate the criteria based on which advertising should be delimitated from other forms of information on goods or services or informative messages. The problem of the thesis is that since there are prohibited areas of advertising, institutions and courts have difficulties in distinguishing the cases where information provided by business entities has specific advertising features and where it does not. False interpretation of advertising and informative messages results in huge fines for companies due to prohibited advertising. Objectives of the thesis: (1) to analyse the concept of advertising and to identify its features; (2) in accordance with the doctrine and the case law, to identify the criteria characterising informative messages and advertising in various areas which should be applied when disputing on the issue of delimitation; (3) to determine whether the concept of advertising differs in different areas in the case law, and to determine whether the use of different advertising definitions in different areas is necessary, thus allowing the legislator to assess in more rigorous manner the information on goods or services that are more dangerous to society. Aim of the thesis: to identify the criteria for informative messages and advertising... [to full text]

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Yes / There are more than 200 published species within the Lactobacillus genus complex (LGC), the majority of which have sequenced type strain genomes available. Although genome-based species delimitation cutoffs are accepted as the gold standard by the community, these are seldom actually checked for new or already published species. In addition, the availability of genome data is revealing inconsistencies in the species-level classification of many strains. We constructed a de novo species taxonomy for the LGC based on 2,459 publicly available genomes, using a 94% core nucleotide identity cutoff. We reconciled these de novo species with published species and subspecies names by (i) identifying genomes of type strains and (ii) comparing 16S rRNA genes of the genomes with 16S rRNA genes of type strains. We found that genomes within the LGC could be divided into 239 de novo species that were discontinuous and exclusive. Comparison of these de novo species to published species led to the identification of nine sets of published species that can be merged and one species that can be split. Further, we found at least eight de novo species that constitute new, unpublished species. Finally, we reclassified 74 genomes on the species level and identified for the first time the species of 98 genomes. Overall, the current state of LGC species taxonomy is largely consistent with genome-based species delimitation cutoffs. There are, however, exceptions that should be resolved to evolve toward a taxonomy where species share a consistent diversity in terms of sequence divergence. / This study was supported by the Research Foundation Flanders (grant 11A0618N), the Flanders Innovation and Entrepreneurship Agency (grants IWT-SB 141198 and IWT/50052), and the University of Antwerp (grant FFB150344).

Esta pesquisa tem como objetivo investigar as diferentes formas de representação do território Guarani localizado na Serra do Mar no estado de São Paulo. Visa a compreensão de como é possível apreender o território do outro - do Guarani- como esse outro é capaz de representá-lo, constituindo-se as representações desse território o objeto de estudo. As representações são as geradoras das questões que serão discutidas e problematizadas. Para isso, este trabalho contou com a produção e análise de diferentes representações do território Guarani, constituído por mapas com a delimitação a partir da concepção Guarani do que eles denominam de território, com entrevistas formais e informais, pesquisa bibliográfica e observação em campo. O conceito de território foi central nessa pesquisa devido ao contexto territorial que as aldeias da Terra Indígena Tenondé Porá estão inseridas. Atualmente, somente o núcleo habitacional de 26 hectares da aldeia Tenondé Porá e Krukutu estão demarcados, o que tem como consequência a impossibilidade do desenvolvimento do modo de ser tradicional Guarani, baseado no Nhadereko. Desse modo, há cerca de 20 anos a FUNAI desenvolve estudos voltados para o processo de ampliação dos limites da Terra indígena Tenondé Porá. Essa ampliação possibilitaria a união dos limites administrativos das Terras indígenas da Serra do Mar, as Terras Indígenas do Aguapeú, Rio Branco, Itaóca e Tenondé Porá, constituindo essa união o que os Guarani da Aldeia Tenondé Porá denominam de fragmento do território Guarani da Serra do Mar, por ser um território contínuo e contíguo, incorporando a área destinada à caça, pesca e coleta de materiais. Esta pesquisa possibilitou constatar que os territórios Guarani são ligados por meio das redes de parentesco, bem como por meio das redes de trocas de mercadoria, cultura e conhecimento, o que não anula, mas reforça a necessidade de garantia das áreas destinadas à caça, à pesca e à coleta de materiais por meio da circulação e mobilidade. Por serem fundamentais para entender o que se denomina território Guarani, alguns conceitos geográficos como Terra, distância, fronteira, mobilidade e rede foram problematizados. O resultado da pesquisa demonstra que há a necessidade de entender as representações a partir dos seus contextos, de pesquisa bibliográfica e, principalmente, do diálogo com o produtor, bem como sua relação com outras representações. / This research aims to investigate the different forms of representation of the Guarani territory located in the Serra do Mar states of São Paulo and doing so to understand how it is possible to apprehend the territory of the other - Guarani\'s - and to understand how this other is able to represent it. Our object of study is the representations of this territory. Representations are the generators of the issues that will be discussed and questioned. For this purpose, the work involved the production and analysis of different representations of this territory, constituted by maps with the delimitation from the Guarani conception of what they call \"territory\", formal and informal interviews, bibliographical field research and observation. The concept of territory is central due to the territorial context that the villages of Tenondé Porá Indigenous Land are inserted. Currently only the 26-hectare housing complex of the Tenondé Porá and Krukutu villages are demarcated, resulting in the impossibility of developing the traditional Guarani mode based on Nhadereko. Thus, about 20 years ago, FUNAI developed studies aimed at expanding the boundaries of Tenondé Porá indigenous land. This extension would allow the union of the administrative boundaries of the indigenous lands of the Serra do Mar, the Indigenous Lands of Aguapeú, Rio Branco , Itaóca and Tenondé Porá. This union is what the Guarani of the Tenondé Porá Village denominate as a fragment of the Guarani territory of the Serra do Mar, because it is a continuous and contiguous territory, incorporating the area destined to hunting, fishing and collecting materials. This research made it possible to verify that the Guarani territories are linked through kinship networks, as well as through networks of merchandise, culture and knowledge exchange, which does not nullify, but reinforces the need to guarantee areas for hunting, fishing and collection of materials through circulation and mobility. Some geographical concepts were problematized because they are fundamental to understand what is called Guarani territory, they are: land, distance, frontier, mobility and networks. The result of the research shows that there is a need to understand the representations from their contexts, bibliographical research and mainly the dialogue with the producer, as well as their relation with other representations.

O presente trabalho tem, como objetivo principal, apresentar uma proposta metodológica para a delimitação territorial de municípios. A questão fronteiriça, aparentemente irrelevante em um mundo cada vez mais integrado, classificado por muitos como um mundo sem fronteiras, mostra-se, na verdade, cada vez mais presente, dentro de uma fragmentação permanente do espaço geográfico em diversas unidades políticas. Dentro disto, os limites territoriais internos, primordialmente os de caráter municipal, apresentam grande importância na vida cotidiana de todos os indivíduos. São estas linhas que determinam a localização de eleitores, a implantação de escolas, atendimentos em postos de saúde, entregas de correspondências, implantação de linhas telefônicas, cadastramentos pra fins escolares, recolhimento de lixo, pesquisa para censos demográficos, abastecimento de água e luz, melhoramentos em vias de acesso, entre outros. Dada tamanha importância, espera-se que os mesmos tenham suas definições baseadas em critérios concretos e coerentes. A análise dos limites municipais brasileiros demonstra, entretanto, uma situação distante da ideal. Enquanto parâmetros populacionais, econômicos e eleitorais são discutidos como requisitos mínimos para a criação de municípios, elementos territoriais acabam sendo relegados. O evidente contraste entre territórios demasiadamente extensos ao lado de pequenas áreas municipais em conjunto com formas das mais variadas possíveis, permite afirmar que, em meio a total permissibilidade de atuação técnica e política, não há critérios consistentes estabelecidos para a definição das linhas limítrofes. Dentre os inúmeros problemas gerados pelas delimitações inconsistentes, destaca-se a questão da posição do limite em relação às sedes municipais dos municípios confrontantes. O posicionamento desequilibrado da referida linha pode gerar situações em que determinada população, apesar de residir oficialmente em um município, usufrui dos serviços públicos de outro. Nestes casos, podemos considerar duas áreas territoriais municipais distintas a jurídica, definida por lei, e a real, efetivada na realidade. Neste contexto, propõe-se a consideração da distância como elemento central para a análise territorial. Levando em consideração que um indivíduo, localizado entre duas sedes municipais, ao necessitar de algum serviço público oferecido em ambas, tende a se deslocar para a mais próxima e, que o referido deslocamento se dá primordialmente através das vias de acesso (rodovias, estradas, caminhos, etc.), conclui-se que a adoção da simples distância euclidiana não é satisfatória, devendo ser substituída pela distância viária, primordialmente medida pelo tempo de viagem. Desta forma, eis a premissa da pesquisa: o território municipal deve corresponder a sua respectiva área de influência, definida pelo conjunto dos pontos mais próximos (considerando o menor tempo de viagem necessário) de sua sede em relação às sedes do entorno. / This work has as main objective to present a methodology for territorial delimitation of municipalities. The border issue, apparently irrelevant in an increasingly integrated world, rated by many as a \"borderless world\", it is shown, in fact, increasingly present, in a permanent fragmentation of geographic space in various political units. Within this, the internal boundaries, primarily the municipal boundaries, have major importance in everyday life of all individuals. These are lines that determine the location of voters, the deployment of schools, attendance at public health clinics, delivery of correspondence, implementation of telephone lines, registrations for school purposes, garbage collection, search for demographic censuses, supply water and light, improvements in access roads, among others. Given such importance, it is expected that they have their settings based on specific and consistent criteria. The analysis of the Brazilian municipal boundaries demonstrates, however, a distant ideal situation. While population, economic and electoral parameters are discussed as minimum requirements for the creation of municipalities, territorial elements end up being relegated. The stark contrast between too extensive territories side of small municipal areas together with the most diverse forms, have shown that, amid all permissibility of technical expertise and policy, there is no consistent criteria for defining the boundary line. Among the numerous problems caused by inconsistent boundaries, there is the issue of position limits in relation to the municipal headquarters of the bordering municipalities. The \"unbalanced\" position of that line can lead to situations where certain population, although living officially in municipality, enjoys the public services of another. In these cases, we can consider two different municipal territorial areas - legal, defined by law, and the real, effective in reality. In this context, it is proposed to consider the distance as a central element for territorial analysis. Assuming an individual, located between two municipal centers, to require some public service offered in both, tends to move to the closest and that displacement occurs primarily through the access roads (highways, streets, paths, etc.), it is concluded that the adoption of simple Euclidean distance is not satisfactory and should be replaced by the road distance, primarily measured by travel time. Thus, this is the premise of the research: the municipality must correspond to their respective area of influence defined by the set of closest points (considering the lowest travel time required) from its headquarters in relation to the surrounding headquarters.

As fronteiras não acabaram como foi preconizado apressadamente na década de 1990. Elas se constituem de processos histórica e geograficamente dinâmicos. Os tipos, características e significados de fronteiras e limites se transformam ao longo dos tempos e se manifestam de diferentes formas em cada lugar e período onde ocorrem. Para além das características geográficas básicas, as fronteiras marítimas e terrestres do território brasileiro foram constituídas por diversos e distintos processos. As disputas territoriais seculares, que perpassaram períodos históricos desde os tempos coloniais, culminaram no processo de estabelecimento de fato das fronteiras terrestres brasileiras apenas no século XX. Hoje, já consolidadas, suas novas significações descartam sua função original ligada à expansão territorial, mas mantém uma outra, a de defesa, mesmo que sob novas formas de atuação. Atualmente, se verificam em diversos pontos dessas fronteiras, variados processos de ocupação, de interação internacional e de integração local, regional e nacional. Nas fronteiras marítimas do Brasil, percebe-se simultaneamente a dinâmica expansiva e a ocupação por exploração e por defesa. A origem desse processo se encontra no pós Segunda Guerra Mundial, quando os países costeiros dispararam, a partir de ação unilateral dos Estados Unidos, o processo de territorialização das águas marítimas que encerraram, ou ao menos limitaram a visão dos mares e oceanos inteiramente internacionalizados. Foram instituídas, no âmbito da ONU, faixas de soberania e de direitos de soberania aos países costeiros mar adentro. Seus processos de delimitação se tornaram foco geopolítico mediados por normatizações internacionais, cujas aplicações se encontram, ainda, em processo de estabelecimento. É o caso das fronteiras marítimas do Brasil que, em 2007, conseguiu referendar na ONU parte de suas requisições de expansão de suas águas jurisdicionais onde exerce direitos de soberania. / The borderlands haven\'t disappeared as it was headlessly proclaimed last decade. They are constituted by historic and geographical dynamic processes. Types, characteristics and meanings of borderlands and boundaries are transformed along the time and manifest themselves in different ways every place and moment they occur. Besides the basic geographic characteristics, sea and terrestrial boundaries of Brazilian territory have been constituted by several different processes. The territorial disputes that have been happening over the last centuries, passed by historical periods since colonial times, and culminated in the process of establishment of Brazilian territorial borderlands only during 20th century. Today, already consolidated, its new significations reject its original function linked to territorial expansion, but keep another one, which is the defense, even though under new ways of acting. Nowadays, in several places of these borderlands, different occupation processes of international interaction and local, regional and national integration are verified. In the maritime boundaries of Brazil, it is noticed simultaneously, the expansive dynamics and the occupation by exploration and defense. The origin of this process is found in post-World War II, when coastal countries trigged, from a unilateral act of the United States, the sea waters territorialization process that ended, or at least limited the idea of seas and oceans totally internationalized. It has been instituted, within the ambit of United Nations, ocean belts of sovereignty and rights of coastal countries. Their processes of delimitation have become geopolitical focus mediated by international normative acts, whose applications are still in process of establishment. That is the case of maritime boundaries of Brazil which, in 2007, managed to obtain part of its requests related to expansion of waters under its jurisdiction where the country has rights of sovereignty.

I highlight two squamate lineages endemic to Southeast Asia, the Asian water monitors (Varanus salvator Complex) and the Angle-headed lizards (Agamidae: Gonocephalus), and elucidate their systematic affinities and historical biogeography. My results represent novel phylogenetic inferences, with biogeographic histories and diversification events corresponding to major climatic fluctuations over the past 30 million years. Additionally, I solidify the taxonomy and systematics of the Varanus salvator Complex, and enumerate more than a dozen Gonocephalus lineages as candidate species in need of taxonomic scrutiny. Lastly, I investigate contemporary and historical patterns of dispersal throughout Sundaland, and between Sundaland and the Philippines.