The U.S. EPA has identified pathogen indicators as a leading cause of impairments in rivers and streams in the U.S. Elevated levels of bacteria in streams draining the agricultural watersheds cause concern because they indicate the potential presence of pathogenic organisms. Limited understanding of how bacteria survive in the environment and are released from fecal matter and transported along overland flow pathways results in high uncertainty in the design and selection of appropriate best management practices (BMPs) and in the bacterial fate and transport models used to identify sources of pathogens. The overall goal of this study was to improve understanding of the fate and transport mechanisms of two pathogen indicators, E. coli and enterococci, from grazed pasturelands. This goal was addressed by monitoring pathogen indicator concentrations in fresh fecal deposits for an extended period of time. Transport mechanisms of pathogen indicators were examined by developing a method to partition between the attached and unattached phases and then applying this method to analyze runoff samples collected from small box plots and large transport plots. The box plot experiments examined the partitioning of pathogen indicators in runoff from three different soil types while the transport plot experiments examined partitioning at the edge-of-the-field from well-managed and poorly-managed pasturelands. A variety of techniques have been previously used to assess bacterial attachment to particulates including filtration, fractional filtration and centrifugation. In addition, a variety of chemical and physical dispersion techniques are employed to release attached and bioflocculated cells from particulates. This research developed and validated an easy-to-replicate laboratory procedure for separation of unattached from attached E. coli with the ability to identify particle sizes to which indicators preferentially attach. Testing of physical and chemical dispersion techniques identified a hand shaker treatment for 10 minutes followed by dilutions in 1,000 mg L-1 of Tween-85 as increasing total E. coli concentrations by 31% (P value = 0.0028) and enterococci concentrations by 17% (P value = 0.3425) when compared to a control. Separation of the unattached and attached fractions was achieved by fractional filtration followed by centrifugation. Samples receiving the filtration and centrifugation treatments did not produce statistically different E. coli (P value = 0.97) or enterococci (P value = 0.83) concentrations when compared to a control, indicating that damage was not inflicted upon the cells during the separation procedure. In-field monitoring of E. coli and enterococci re-growth and decay patterns in cowpats applied to pasturelands was conducted during the spring, summer, fall and winter seasons. First order approximations were used to determine die-off rate coefficients and decimal reduction times (D-values). Higher order approximations and weather parameters were evaluated by multiple regression analysis to identify environmental parameters impacting in-field E. coli and enterococci decay. First order kinetics approximated E. coli and enterococci decay rates with regression coefficients ranging from 0.70 to 0.90. Die-off rate constants were greatest in cowpats applied to pasture during late winter and monitored into summer months for E. coli (k = 0.0995 d-1) and applied to the field during the summer and monitored until December for enterococci (k = 0.0978 d-1). Decay rates were lowest in cowpats applied to the pasture during the fall and monitored over the winter (k = 0.0581 d-1 for E. coli and k = 0.0557 d-1 for enterococci). Higher order approximations and the addition of weather variables improved regression coefficients (R2) to values ranging from 0.81 to 0.97. Statistically significant variables used in the models for predicting bacterial decay included temperature, solar radiation, rainfall and relative humidity. Attachment of E. coli and enterococci to particulates present in runoff from highly erodible soils was evaluated through the application of rainfall to small box plots containing different soil types. Partitioning varied by indicator and by soil type. In general, enterococci had a higher percent attached to the silty loam (49%) and silty clay loam (43%) soils while E. coli had a higher percent attached to the loamy fine sand soils (43%). At least 50% of all attached E. coli and enterococci were associated with sediment and organic particles ranging from 8 – 62 μm in diameter. Much lower attachment rates were observed from runoff samples collected at the edge-of-the-field, regardless of pastureland management strategy. On average, 4.8% of E. coli and 13% of enterococci were attached to particulates in runoff from well-managed pasturelands. A second transport plot study found that on average only 0.06% of E. coli PC and 0.98% of enterococci were attached to particulates in runoff from well-managed pasturelands, but percent attachment increased slightly in runoff from poorly-managed pasture with 2.8% of E. coli and 1.23% of enterococci attached to particulates. Equations to predict E. coli and enterococci loading rates in the attached and unattached forms as a function of total suspended solids (TSS), phosphorous and organic carbon loading rates appeared to be a promising tool for improving prediction of bacterial loading rates from grazed pasturelands (R2 values ranged from 0.61 to 0.99). This study provides field-based seasonal die-off rate coefficients and higher order approximations to improve predictions of indicator re-growth and decay patterns. The transport studies provide partitioning coefficients that can be implemented into NPS models to improve predictions of bacterial concentrations in surface waters and regression equations to predict bacterial partitioning and loading based on TSS and nutrient data. Best management practices to reduce bacterial loadings to the edge-of-the-field from pasturelands (regardless of management strategy) should focus on retention of pathogen indicators moving through overland flow pathways in the unattached state. Settling of particulates prior to release of runoff to surface waters might be an appropriate method of reducing bacterial loadings by as much as 50% from highly erodible soils. / Ph. D.

The thermal performance of the power MOSFET module is subject to change over its lifetime. This is caused by the growth of voids and other defects in the die-attach layer. The goal of this dissertation is to develop measurement techniques and finite element simulations that can measure the changes in thermal performance caused by changes in die-attach voided area. These experimental results and simulations can then be used to create predictions of the thermal performance of a particular power semiconductor module at various stages of die-attach fatigue. In the results and simulations presented, a relationship is developed between thermal impedance and void area coverage. This dissertation starts by presenting an analysis of the thermal and mechanical stresses needed for crack and void growth in the power semiconductor die-attach region. Accelerated life testing is then performed for both commercial and prototype power semiconductor devices to generate the stresses needed to precipitate void growth. Representative groups of lead and lead-free solders are then tested to compare levels of die-attach degradation under accelerated life conditions. Hardware is developed to experimentally measure thermal impedance using temperaturesensitive characteristics of the power MOSFET. The power semiconductor devices that were subjected to accelerated life testing are then measured with this hardware. The results show that die-attach voided area coverage increases thermal impedance. Representative lumped parameter thermal models that use R-C circuits are derived to demonstrate the ability of the thermal impedance analyzer to determine the differences in the die-attach layer. Finite element modeling (FEM) is then used on representative voided devices to support these results, with additional emphasis on peak temperatures caused by hotspots located over the voided areas. Experimental techniques are further applied to measurement of cooling trends that occur due to the existence of voids in the die-attach layer. These measurements are correlated with finite element thermal simulations to develop a relationship between thermal impedance, hotspot temperature, die-attach void size, and total voided area coverage. / Ph. D.

Salmonella has been shown to survive in soils for extended periods. Anaerobic soil disinfestation (ASD) represents a promising alternative to fumigation used to manage soilborne diseases and pests; however, little is known about ASD's impact on Salmonella. The study aimed to compare Salmonella die-off following inoculation in ASD and non-ASD processed soil and compare Salmonella die-off in amended and non-amended soils following ASD. Two independent experiments were arranged in randomized complete block designs (four replications per treatment). Sandy-loam soil was inoculated with a Salmonella cocktail (5.5±0.2 log CFU/g) and amended with field-applicable rates of rye (R), rapeseed (RS), hairy vetch (HV), or pelletized poultry litter (PPL). Non-amended, anaerobic (ANC) and non-amended, aerobic controls (AC) were performed in parallel. Soils were irrigated to saturation and covered with plastic mulch. ASD was terminated by removal of plastic (3-weeks). Triplicate soil samples were collected pre-ASD and 0, 1, 2, 3, 7, 10, 14, 21, 28, 31, 35, 38 and 42d post-ASD. Post-ASD soil was irrigated weekly. Salmonella was quantified using standard methods and a modified MPN enrichment protocol. Concentrations between treatments and time-points were analyzed for significance (P≤0.05). Separate log-linear models were used to examine effect of amendment and irrigation on Salmonella die-off during ASD and post-ASD. Salmonella concentrations decreased in all treatments during ASD with the greatest decrease being observed in ASD and non-ASD controls. Among ASD-processed, amended soil, the rye and rapeseed amendments had the greatest decrease in Salmonella concentrations. Salmonella concentrations decreased by ~1 log between pre-ASD and post-soil saturation (95% Confidence Interval (CI) =-1.31, -0.99), and by approximately 2 logs between pre-ASD and termination of ASD (CI=-2.14, -1.83). Salmonella concentrations were ~1 log higher in ASD-processed, pelletized poultry litter-amended soil, compared to the ASD control (CI=0.81, 1.26). The average daily die-off rate of Salmonella post-ASD was -0.05 log per g (CI=-0.05, -0.04). Following irrigation, Salmonella concentrations were 0.14 log greater, compared to no irrigation within 7 d (CI=0.05, 0.23). Salmonella serovar distribution differed by treatment, with >70% survival of Newport in pelletized poultry litter. ASD does not eliminate Salmonella concentrations in soil; instead some amendments may enhance Salmonella survival. / Master of Science in Life Sciences / Anaerobic soil disinfestation (ASD) is the process of removing soilborne weeds, soilborne diseases and insect by creating an anaerobic environment in the soil by incorporating easily decomposable soil amendments, covering with plastic mulch, and irrigating to saturation. The anaerobic soil environment persists for two- to six-weeks. ASD represents a promising alternative to fumigation used to manage soil-borne diseases and pests. However, little is known about ASD's impact on Salmonella, which has been shown to survive in soils for extended periods of time and can contaminate the edible part of produce. This study aimed to determine if ASD is an effective strategy to reduce or eliminate Salmonella from soils that contain typical amendments added to promote soil health, determine the distribution of Salmonella serovars in ASD treated soils, and examine the impact of irrigation. Two independent experiments were conducted in growth chambers. A common soil type in produce growing regions of the Eastern Shore of VA, sandy-loam soil was inoculated with a five-serovar Salmonella cocktail (~5.5±0.2 log CFU/g) and mixed with field-applicable rates of rye, rapeseed, hairy vetch, or pelletized poultry litter. ASD processed soils were irrigated to field saturation, covered with plastic mulch, and left for 3 weeks. Post-ASD, soils were irrigated weekly. Salmonella was quantified at least once per week for up to 6 weeks in soil samples collected in triplicate pre-ASD, post-field saturation, and post-ASD. The three-week anaerobic soil environment, created during ASD, allowed for greater Salmonella survival, compared to the aerobic soil environment. Salmonella survival in ASD processed soil was dependent on amendment. Salmonella concentrations decreased in all treatments during ASD with the greatest decrease being observed in ASD and non-ASD controls. Among ASD-processed, amended soil, the rye and rapeseed amendments had the greatest decrease in Salmonella concentrations. Pelletized poultry litter amended soil, in combination with ASD, had the highest Salmonella concentration, while rye had the lowest at each time-point post-ASD. Salmonella serovar distribution differed by treatment with greater survival of S. Poona in rye, S. Braenderup in hairy vetch and S. Newport in pelletized poultry litter. , Salmonella concentrations were 0.14 log greater, compared to no irrigation within 7 d. Overall, ASD did not eliminate Salmonella in soils. Compared to non-ASD processed soil, ASD processed soil had greater survival of Salmonella and the soil amendment used influenced the survival ability. While more research is needed on ASD and different soil amendments, the findings of this research would suggest pelletized poultry litter not be used as an amendment (i.e., carbon source in ASD) for fields used to grow produce eaten raw, especially when soils are potentially contaminated with Salmonella.

This thesis presents the low cost process for UBM formation on aluminum pads of single die/dice for Flip Chip applications. The UBM (Under Bump Metallurgy) is required in solder bump structure to provide adhesion/diffusion barrier layer, solder wettable layer, and oxidation barrier layer between the bonding pads of the die and the bumps. Typically, UBM is deposited on the whole wafers by sputtering, evaporation, or electroless plating. These deposition techniques are not practical for UBM formation on single die/dice, thus preventing Flip Chip technology to be applied in applications where the whole wafers are not available. The process presented in this thesis has been developed to overcome this problem. The developed UBM formation process allows the UBM layer to be deposited on a single die, thus eliminating the requirement to have the whole wafer in the deposition process. With the combination of the UBM formation process developed in this work and a suitable bump formation technique, solder bumping on a single die can be achieved, thus making Flip Chip technology available for use in low volume applications and prototyping stages. The developed UBM formation process consists of two major steps; temporary die attach process and UBM deposition process. The first process is developed using thermoplastic adhesive film. The second process is developed using electroless nickel plating, followed by gold immersion. It has been demonstrated in this thesis that the developed process can be used to form the UBM layer on the die successfully regardless of the die size and the complexity of the die pattern, and that this process does not damage nor affect electrically the sensitive die. / Master of Science

This study mainly evaluated the thermo-mechanical reliability of lead-free packaging techniques for attaching large-area chip. With 3 MPa pressure, a low-temperature (<300oC) sintering technique enabled by a nano-scale silver paste was developed for attaching 100 mm2 silicon die. This new lead-free packaging technique for die-attachment was compared with soldering by vacuum reflow. Lead-free solder SAC305 and SN100C were selected and used in this work since they were widely used in electronic packaging industry. Inspection of as-prepared die-attachments by X-ray and optical microscopy (observation of cross-section) showed that the voids percentage in solder joint was less than 5% and no voids was observed at the scale of hundreds of micron in sintered silver joint. Then these die-attachment were thermal cycled with the temperature range from -40oC to 125oC. Deduction of curvature and residual stresses were found for both soldered and sintered die-attachment. After 800 cycles, the residual stresses in silicon-solder-copper sample already decreased to around 0. The SEM images of solder and silver joint after 800 thermal cycles showed that cracks longer than 2.5 mm already grew in both kinds of solder joint (die-attachment of Si-Solder-Copper). In contrast, no cracks or voids at the scale of hundreds of micron were defected in silver joint. Based on these observation, different mode of stress-relaxation were proposed for sintered silver and solder, respectively. While solder joint released stresses by crack growth, the silver joint relied on the deformation of porous structure, and plastic deformation may occur. The pressure-sintering process with double printing and drying was proved to be a reliable process to produce sintered - silver bonding with high strength. The reliability of silver joint was better than that of SAC305 or SN100C. Besides, the technique of measuring the curvature by laser scanning, introduced in this work, showed its significance by directly reflecting the bonding integrity of die-attachment. As a nondestructive testing technique, It was a cheaper and faster way to examine the die-attachment. Additionally, it overcame the disadvantage of X-ray Inspection: it was of the ability to differentiate between layers of die-attachment. / Master of Science

Yes / The isotactic polypropylene (iPP) usually shows a unique parent-daughter lamellae structure in which the parent and daughter lamellae are against each other with a near perpendicular angle (80° or 100°). Inducing a high fraction of oriented cross-hatched structure in iPP during processing is desirable for designing the bi-oriented iPP products. We processed a commercial iPP via tensile-stretching and die-drawing to evaluate the structural evolution of oriented parent-daughter lamellae. It turned out that the die-drawing process had an advantage in attaining a high fraction of oriented cross-hatched structure of iPP, as compared to the free tensile stretching. Besides, the presence of α-nucleating agents affected the formation of oriented parent-daughter lamellae in the die-drawn samples whereas such influence diminished in the free stretched ones. It was found that the confined deformation inside the die led to the well-preserved oriented cross-hatched structure in the die-drawn iPP. / This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 21704102, U1832186, and 51525305), Newton Advanced Fellowship of the Royal Society, United Kingdom (No. NA150222) and ExxonMobil Asia Pacific Research & Development Co., Ltd.

Most Americans will die in a hospital or skilled care facility. Despire diligent efforts by local citizens groups, state and national foundations, and healthcare providers to inform the public about their legal rights, only 15% of patients have advanced directives in the form of a living will or health care proxy (Haynor, 1998). Advanced directives that are available are often out-dated, ambiguous, incomplete, unacknowledged, or disregarded by both healthcare providers and family members. An educational program was offered to the residents of a low-income senior housing complex to introduce the "Five Wishes" advanced directive developed by the Commission on Aging with Dignity. The program involved informing the participants about advanced directives, identifying communication strategies for the participants when talking with their physician and family about their wishes, encouraging and assisting participants to complete an advanced directive, and identifying ways to distribute their completed directive. The program was attended voluntarily by thirty-two residents. Results of the anonymous program evaluations revealed the program provided good information about advanced directives, that the information was useful, and that the participants felt more knowledgeable about advanced planning. The majority of participants stated they felt comfortable discussing their wishes with their physician and family, and most wished to complete an advanced directive. Nurse practitioners are in a unique position to provide education, support, and guidance for patients regarding advanced directives. Advanced care planning should be an integral part of the patient's health care. The longitudinal relationships formed through continued health care provision give primary care practitioners the opportunity to help patients remain in control of their care throughout their lives and to keep the patients informed of changes in self-determined healthcare laws and health policies.

L’objectif de cette thèse est d’étudier la possibilité de caractériser le coefficient de frottement par un modèle analytique. Tout d’abord, le modèle analytique (Orban-Hu,2007) a été programmé à l’aide du logiciel « Matlab » puis validé par simulation numérique à l’aide du logiciel « Ls-Dyna ». Ensuite, on a réalisé des essais expérimentaux afin de caractériser les propriétés mécaniques du cuivre d’une part et étudier la mise en forme de tubes par hydroformage de tubes. Par suite, le coefficient de frottement a été caractérisé aussi bien par le modèle analytique que par le test classique ‘pion sur disque’. Les simulations numériques avec les coefficients de frottement obtenus ont permis de valider les résultats issus des essais expérimentaux pour une matrice carrée. Les mêmes résultats ont été également obtenus pour d’autres configurations géométriques (section rectangulaire, trapézoïdale et trapèze.) / The objective of this thesis is to study the possibility of characterizing the friction coefficient by an analytical model. First, the analytical model (Orban-Hu, 2007) has been programmed using "Matlab» software and has been validated by numerical simulation using "LS-Dyna" software. Then, experimental tests were carried out in order i) to characterize the mechanical properties of copper and ii) to study the tube hydroforming in a square section. As a result, the friction coefficient was characterized by the analytical model and the pin-on-disk test. Then, the numerical simulation with the friction coefficients obtained allowed to validate the experimental results for a square section. The same findings were obtained using other die geometries (rectangular, trapezoidal and trapezoid-sectional die).

Aluminium die casting is a process used to transform molten aluminium material into automotive gearbox housings, wheels and electronic components, among many other uses. It is used because it is a very efficient method of achieving near net shape with the required mechanical properties. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a technique used to determine the environmental impacts of a product or process. The Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) is the initial phase of an LCA and describes which emissions will occur and which raw materials are used during the life of a product or during a process. This study has improved the LCI technique by adding in manufacturing and other costs to the ISO standardised methods. Although this is not new, the novel application and allocation methods have been developed independently. The improved technique has then been applied to Aluminium High Pressure Die Casting. In applying the improved LCI to this process, the cost in monetary terms and environmental emissions have been determined for a particular component manufactured by this process. A model has been developed in association with an industry partner so this technique can be repeatedly applied and used in the prediction of costs and emissions. This has been tested with two different products. Following this, specialised LCA software modelling of the aluminium high pressure die casting process was conducted. The variations in the process have shown that each particular component will have different costs and emissions and it is not possible to generalise the process by modelling only one component. This study has concentrated on one process within die casting but the techniques developed can be used across any variations in the die casting process.

Zeichnet sich die Außenpolitik der Großen Koalition durch „mangelndes Profil“ aus? Marieluise Beck belegt dies durch die deutsche Reaktion auf die Initiative für eine atomwaffenfreie Welt des US-Präsidenten. Auch bei den Debatten um Menschenrechte, den außenpolitischen Umgang mit China und Russland sowie die Verwendung von selektiven Sanktionen ist die Große Koalition den Anforderungen nicht gewachsen.