O presente trabalho desenvolve um estudo acerca da problemática das pessoas que se deslocam por causas ambientais. Desse modo, observa a questão da movimentação dos seres humanos pelo planeta, atentando-se para a trajetória histórica das pessoas asiladas e refugiadas e a proteção que foi convencionada a estas através de acordos internacionais e regionais, bem como o papel das Nações Unidas na articulação de soluções que protejam tais grupos. Analisa, também, o problema daqueles que se deslocam dentro do território de seus próprios países, argumentando-se que estas pessoas se movimentam pelos mesmos motivos que aquelas que escolhem atravessar as fronteiras dos Estados e que, por isso, merecem amparo idêntico. A partir disso e da constatação da evolução dos problemas ambientais, principalmente quanto aos que resultam das alterações climáticas e que já geraram e ainda gerarão um número muito grande de deslocados, afetando o território de países inteiros e inviabilizando a permanência de populações em condições que lhes garantam a sobrevivência nos lugares atingidos, em função de eventos como secas, enchentes, furacões, elevação do nível do mar, entre outros, busca-se, justamente, construir uma definição dos grupos de pessoas que migram por razões ambientais, que possa servir de fundamento à elaboração de instrumentos jurídicos internacionais e que englobe todos aqueles que migram, dentro ou para fora de seus países, por motivos relacionados ao meio ambiente. Para tanto, examina princípios jurídicos fundamentais, como o da solidariedade e da responsabilidade comum, mas diferenciada, que irão nortear a construção de tais mecanismos, analisando o modo como o direito internacional ambiental poderá estabelecer bases para a efetivação da proteção dos deslocados ambientais. / This paper develops a study on the issue of people moving up to environmental causes. Thus, says the issue of movement of human beings the planet, looking for the historical trajectory of people and asylum and refugee protection that has been agreed to by the relevant international and regional agreements and the UN´s role in the articulation of solutions that protect such groups. Examines also the issue of people moving up within the territory of their countries, arguing that these moves are the same reasons that those who choose to cross the borders of states and thus deserve similar support. From this finding and the development of environmental problems, mainly as a result of the climate change and has generated and still generate a large number of displaced persons, affecting the territory of entire countries and preventing the permanence of populations, such that to ensure the survival, in the places affected, due to events such as droughts, floods, hurricanes, sea level rise, among others, seeks to, precisely, to construct a definition of people who migrate for environmental reasons, to serve as a basis for development of international legal instruments and involving all those who migrate within or outside their country for reasons related to the environment. To do so, examines the fundamental legal principles such as solidarity and common responsibility, but different, which will guide the construction of such mechanisms and how the international environmental law may establish foundations for the realization of protection of the environmental displaced.

ABSTRACT Internally displaced persons remaining in camps - who are they, why do they stay? A case study of internally displaced persons in Sri Lanka Essay in Political Science C, by Rebecka Johansson, fall 2004 This essay is a case study of internally displaced persons in camps in the district of Vavunyia in northern Sri Lanka. The main question was; Why do some internally displaced persons remain in camps when many displaced people already have settled elsewhere? The aim of this study was to examine why some people stay in camps even after a ceasefire agreement has been signed and though many people already have settled. The literature on solutions of conflict-induced displacement is not conceptually rich or theoretically exact. Therefore this study also tried to make a model for analysing why some individuals remain in camps. The model is based on the political scientist Robert Dahl theories on “political resources”. The concept used in this essay is “personal resources”. The personal resources examined were social situations and land and property ownerships and political and legal rights. The study assumes from the hypothesis that the remaining people in camps lack these personal resources which are of importance for their ability and motivation to settle outside the camps. The personal resources have been divided into structural and agential factors. The result of this study suggests that the given hypothesis was right; the remaining displaced persons lack most of the examined personal resources. Their social situation was characterised by low status, small social network in the place they fled from, low education and unskilled work. A majority of the displaced who remained in the camps were landless. Until recently their legal right to choose settlement was restricted. The only personal resource that the majority of the displaced possessed was the political right to vote. The lack of personal resources affects both the displaced persons’ ability and motivation to find a durable solution. Worthy to note is that it is impossible to draw clear distinctions between what is to be seen as agential and structural factors. Landlessness which in the introduction was categorised as a structural factor was proved to also constitute an agential factor as it affects people’s motivation to return. The study shows that the circumstances surrounding internally displaced persons are complex and constitute many obstacles to their possibility to find permanent settlements. The most obvious factors, like not having any place to return to and deprivation of the legal rights of choice of settlement, can be the most important explanations.

L'objectif de notre thèse est d'étudier les différences qui existent entre les banques islamiques et les banques conventionnelles en termes de structure de capital, de profitabilité et de profil de risque. Les principes qui régissent un système financier islamique sont différents de l'esprit de la finance conventionnelle. Si en finance conventionnelle, la norme qui préside les décisions d'un agent économique est l'optimisation du couple rendement-risque, cette norme n'est pas l'unique ni le principal critère de décision dans l'univers de la finance islamique. L'interdiction des taux d'intérêt et l'exigence d'une certaine éthique dans les transactions financières islamiques (exigence de transparence, partage équitable des profits, interdiction de la spéculation et prise de risque excessive, etc.) représentent les principes fondamentaux de la finance islamique. Nous avons fait émerger un cadre conceptuel nous permettant de comprendre la structure de capital et la profitabilité des banques islamique islamiques grâce à une revue de littérature théorique et empirique. Les théories mobilisées sont liées, d'une part aux théories de structure de capital notamment la théorie de tarde off, la théorie de Pecking Order et la théorie d'agence, d'autres part les théories liées à la profitabilité, notamment les théories de marché et de portefeuille. Les modèles économétriques (la régression logistique binaire, l'analyse discriminante et les modèles de régression sur données de panel) montrent l'existence des différences au niveau de structure du capital et de profitabilité entre les banques islamiques et les banques conventionnelles. Ces différences sont expliquées par les déterminants classiques révélés par la littérature financière. En plus, elles sont déterminées par les caractéristiques propres aux banques islamiques. Notre thèse avait pour objectif également d'identifier un nouveau risque propre aux banques islamiques, le risque commercial déplacé. Ce risque résulte de la gestion des comptes de nature unique, les comptes d'investissement participatifs. Il se manifeste lorsqu'une banque islamique n'assure pas une rentabilité suffisante aux détenteurs de ces comptes. Le modèle interne que nous avons proposé pour la quantification de ce risque, est basé sur la mesure VaR. Il repose sur les pratiques de la banque islamique en termes de rétention de réserves et de partage de profits avec les titulaires des comptes d'investissement. Notre modèle représente une alternatif à la mesure du risque commercial déplacé, à caractère arbitraire et forfaitaire proposé par l'IFSB (2005). / The objective of this thesis is to study differences between Islamic and conventional banks. The principles governing an islamic financial system are different from the spirit of conventional finance. If in conventional finance, the standard that preside decisions is the optimization of the risk-return couple, this standard is neither the only nor the main decision criterion in the world of Islamic finance. The fundamental principles of Islamic finance are the prohibition of interest and the requirement of a certain ethic (transparency, fair distribution of profits, prohibition of speculation and excessive risk taking, etc.) in financial transactions. These features impact significantly the capital structure, profitability and risk profile of Islamic banks. We made the emergence of a conceptual framework that allows us to understand the capital structure and profitability of Islamic banks, with a review of theoretical and empirical literature. Theories mobilized are related, first to the theories of capital structure including the theory of trade off, the Pecking Order theory and agency theory, and second on the other theories related to profitability, including the theories of market portofolio. Econometric models (binary logistic regression, discriminant analysis and multiple linear regression) show that there are differences in capital structure and profitability between Islamic banks and conventional. These differences are explained by traditional determinants of capital structure and profitability. In addition, they are explained by the specific characteristics of Islamic banks such as the new agency relationships that are created in an Islamic bank. Islamic banks are exposed to displaced commercial risk, a specific risk in these institutions. This risk results from the Profit sharing investment accounts PSIA and occurs when Islamic bank does not provide sufficient returns to PSIA holders. The internal model proposed to quantify this risk is based on the VaR measure. The proposed measure of risk depends on the practices of Islamic banking in terms of retention of reserves and profit sharing with PSIA holders.

This thesis analyzes how the interests of minority and majority groups in state-led development practices can be bridged, with the Indian tribals affected by the Sardar Sarovar Dam Project (SSP) serving as a context for my analysis. The SSP threatens the livelihoods of approximately 100,000 people with displacement, who are primarily comprised of Indian tribal minorities. The construction of the SSP makes tribals more vulnerable to the risks associated with development-induced displacement, such as landlessness, joblessness, homelessness, marginalization, and food insecurity. When analyzing the SSP, a lack of adequate compensation, resettlement, and legal protection for the tribals becomes apparent. This has led to discussions of human rights violations among the national and international community, raising concerns regarding the protection of minority groups affected by state-led development. Attention is placed on what it means to be a citizen of a country in terms of legal representation and state protection, and how the under-representation of societal groups can lead to the creation of second-class citizens. The objective is to go beyond current discussions of human rights neglect in the context of the SSP by analyzing the position of minority rights in state-led development practices.

Depuis 1996, conflits armés, grand banditisme (coupeurs de route) et razzias ont forcé des centaines de milliers de Centrafricains à migrer, à l’intérieur de leur pays (déplacés internes) ou vers l'étranger proche (réfugiés au Cameroun et au Tchad). Au travers divers courants de la géographie (politique, du développement, des mobilités), ce travail montre que les migrations forcées se construisent au croisement entre les pratiques des migrants et les choix politiques des structures d'encadrement (États, groupes armés, organisations d'aide humanitaire). Il se fonde sur une approche transversale de la migration forcée (du lieu d'origine au retour éventuel) et sur des enquêtes de terrain multi-situées (Centrafrique, Cameroun, Tchad). Une première partie démontre que les violences ne sont pas causées par la faiblesse de l'État centrafricain, mais par les politiques de ses dirigeants. Les populations sont prises pour cible dans des conflits irréguliers pour contrôler l'appareil d'État et par des groupes armés qui pillent les ressources (bétail, récoltes, infrastructures publiques, diamants). Une seconde partie montre que si les insécurités jouent sur l'ampleur, la répartition spatiale et la durée des exils, les migrants orientent leurs cheminements selon leurs habitudes circulatoires. Ils empruntent divers champs de mobilités pour fuir les violences (mobilités agricoles et pastorales, relations villes-campagnes). Une troisième partie met en perspective le rôle de l'aide humanitaire et des politiques d'asile dans la production de l'espace migratoire, autour de deux formes d’accueil : les camps de réfugiés, la dispersion des migrants dans des villes et des villages. / Since 1996, armed conflicts, organized crime (road bandits) and raids have forced hundreds of thousands of Central African Republic people to migrate within their own country (IDPs) or to bordering countries (refugee in Cameroon and Chad). Through various geographical schools (political, development, mobility), this work demonstrate that forced migrations results from both the practices of migrants and the political choices or the supervisory organizations (states, armed groups, humanitarian organizations). It is based on a transversal approach of forced migration (ranging from the starting point of the migrant up to his possible return) and multi-located field surveys (CAR, Cameroon, Chad). The first part shows that violence is not caused by the weakness of the CAR state, but by the policies of its leaders. The populations are targeted in the course or irregular conflicts aimed at controlling the political machinery and by armed groups plundering ressources (livestock, crops, public infrastructure, diamonds). The second part shows that if insecurities influence the extent, the spatial distribution and the duration of exiles, migrants direct their paths according to their regular circulations. They use various fields of mobility to escape violence (agricultural and pastoral mobility, urban-rural relationship). A third part put sinto perspective the role of humanitarian aid and asylum policies in the production of the migratory space (refugee, camps, dispersion of migrants).

The mini-dissertation analyses the international law obligations of the government and nonstate actors regarding the protection of internally displaced children living with HIV in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The war and armed conflicts in the Eastern DRC have exacerbated the vulnerability of children, causing them to be separated from their families, to experience sexual violence and forced conscription into armed groups, to experience the violent deaths of a parent or friend, resulting in insufficient adult care. They further are subject to a lack of safe drinking water and food, insufficient access to health care services, discrimination and stigmatisation, and so on. These factors increase their risk of contracting HIV and, if they are already living with HIV, they adversely affect their welfare. The mini-dissertation illustrates that international, regional and domestic human rights instruments protecting children can be applied in situations of armed conflicts to supplement humanitarian law instruments. It demonstrates that the government of the DRC has not implemented and fulfilled its international obligations to ensure these children adequate access to health services and to humanitarian assistance for displaced persons living with HIV; security and protection within displaced persons camps; and that children are protected from abuse and human rights violations. The dissertation recommends the prosecution of perpetrators of crimes tied to the conflicts which have targeted children, as well as the ratification by the DRC of regional instruments such as the African Union Convention on the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa, and the African Charter on the Rights and the Welfare of the Child, as this may enhance the legal protection of displaced children in the DRC. / Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Centre for Human Rights / unrestricted

Les conséquences du changement climatique ont soulevé un ensemble de problématiques et parmi elles, la migration environnementale. Bien que débattu par certains chercheurs dès le milieu du 20e siècle, ce phénomène pose encore en 2020 des difficultés tant au niveau terminologique, scientifique que juridique, engendrant des approches différenciées en fonction des instances de discussion. Ce mémoire souhaitait évaluer les politiques et normes qui pouvaient être mises en place au niveau régional, tout en prenant en considération le contexte international dans lequel il évolue, afin d’apporter une protection aux déplacés environnementaux. Conséquemment, le choix s’est porté sur l’Union européenne afin de mieux saisir les évolutions apportées par le Traité de Lisbonne. Ce dernier a fourni un cadre juridique nouveau, favorisant la prise en considération des déplacés environnementaux. Nous avons pu examiner les compétences qui pouvaient être saisies par l’Union européenne, avant d’en analyser l’effectivité. Cela nous a permis de conclure que le droit humanitaire, applicable de façon différenciée en fonction des objectifs qu’il poursuit, ainsi que les politiques de prévention, pourraient apporter une aide effective aux déplacés environnementaux. Nous nous sommes également intéressés aux incomplétudes que pouvaient présenter ces mesures. Cette étude s’est toutefois heurtée à certaines limites, notamment par l’approche holistique que nécessite cette recherche. En effet, les constats scientifiques et juridiques divergents ne permettent pas de conclure à des solutions définitives et homogènes. En outre, les enjeux environnementaux tels qu’ils sont posés aujourd’hui peuvent évoluer positivement ou négativement eu égard aux déplacés environnementaux. Enfin, nous avons décidé de nous attarder uniquement sur les politiques applicables au niveau supranational sans nous étendre sur les apports convenus au niveau national par les États membres, compte tenu du format universitaire. / The consequences of climate change have raised a few issues, including environmental migration. Though debated by some researchers as of the middle of the 20th Century, this phenomenon still poses difficulties in 2020 especially in terms of the scientific and legal terminology, generating differentiated approaches depending on the reason for the debate. Considering this continuing legal vacuum, this dissertation wished to assess the policies that could be carried out at the regional level, while taking into consideration the international context in which it operates. Consequently, the choice fell on the European Union to better understand the developments brought about by the Treaty of Lisbon. The latter has brought a new legal framework, favoring the consideration of environmentally displaced people. We were thus able to examine the competences which could be seized by the European Union, before analyzing their effectiveness. This allowed us to conclude that humanitarian law, applicable differently depending on the objectives it pursues, and prevention policies could provide effective aid to the displaced. We were also interested in the limits that these solutions could present. This study, however, came up against certain limitations, notably by the holistic approach required. Indeed, the divergent scientific and legal conclusions did not allow us to draw definitive and homogeneous solutions. In addition, environmental challenges as they are posed today can evolve positively or negatively about environmentally displaced people. Finally, we have decided to focus only on the policies applicable at the supranational level without dwelling on the contributions agreed at the national level by Member States, considering the university format.

No description available.

Earnings loss due to both lower wages at the current job and the time forgone between two jobs is one of the major consequences of job displacement caused by plant closing, moving and downsizing in the 1980s. Is migration a solution? The present study attempts to answer this question empirically by exploring five waves of data on the displaced manufacturing workers from the CPS Displaced Workers Supplements. Human capital theory and neo-classica1 theory of labor migration both assert that migration should improve people's socio-economic status. They largely neglect social and economic structural constraints on the outcomes of individual behavior. From the dynamic segmentation perspective, this study hypothesizes that deindustrialization has been squeezing workers from the subordinate (lower-tier) primary segment down and thus such workers suffered more loss than their counterparts from the independent (upper-tier) segment; since deindustrialization primarily affected the core manufacturing industries, core workers suffered greater loss from displacement relative to their peripheral counterparts. In this context, this study further hypothesizes that migration will not benefit the workers from the subordinate primary segment as much as the workers from the independent primary segments. The empirical results confirm the main hypotheses of the present study: Workers displaced from the subordinate primary segment suffered more earnings loss and longer jobless duration than their counterparts from the independent primary segment. Workers from the core industries experienced longer jobless duration than their counterparts from the peripheral segment. Migration had no effect on the postdisplacement earnings and jobless duration for the displaced workers from either segment. The clear implication of these findings is that migration is no solution. Among other things, occupation/industry change when reemployed is an important factor causing earnings loss; formal educational attainment reduces earnings loss and shortens the jobless duration while work tenure on the pre-displacement job increases earnings loss and lengthens the jobless duration. / Ph. D.

This thesis is about a remarkable experience lived through by Latvian émigrés in the mid-1950s. They were the targets of a Soviet repatriation campaign, operated by the KGB, which not only envisioned their repatriation to the Soviet Latvian homeland, but also anticipated the destruction of their émigré society as they knew it. The purpose of this thesis is to portray and analyze this repatriation campaign and the émigré Latvian reactions to it. By looking at the activities of the Committee For Return to the Motherland in East Berlin, the contents of the Latvian language repatriation newspaper Par atgriešanos Dzimtenē (For Return to the Motherland), and the reactions to the campaign in contemporary émigré press, this study shows how highly developed strategies and tactics were implemented in order to elicit certain behaviors from émigrés, and how émigrés advanced their own counter-strategies to offset the effects of the campaign. More specifically, this study examines the standardized narratives in Par atgriešanos Dzimtenē that were meant for émigré self-identification and emulation. This thesis proposes that the repatriation campaign was a highly complex Soviet propaganda effort. The publicly announced goal of repatriation included several parallel goals, aims, and purposes and encompassed many types of activities. Above all, deception was used to cover the actions undertaken against émigrés and to mislead host country governments and agencies. This thesis concludes that notwithstanding the Soviet superiority in organization and resources, a small, unprotected, and internally divided community could withstand the concerted efforts of Soviet propaganda if the group’s sense of mission was sufficiently strong and firm. / Denna avhandling behandlar de lettiska flyktingarna från andra världskriget och deras erfarenheter av ofrivilliga kontakter med Sovjetlettland vid mitten av 1950-talet, då flyktingarna blev måltavla för en sovjetisk repatrieringskampanj. Målet för denna kampanj var repatriering, dvs att få flyktingarna att återvända till hemlandet, det av Sovjet ockuperade Lettland. Ett annat mål var att splittra flyktingarnas sammanhållning. Avhandlingen beskriver och analyserar den sovjetiska repatrieringskampanjen och de lettiska flyktingarnas reaktioner. Studien bygger på källmaterial från kampanjverkamheten Committee For Return to the Motherland, som hade sin bas i Östberlin, samt från artiklar i den lettiskspråkiga tidskriften Par atgriešanos Dzimtenē (For Return to the Motherland) som riktade sig till de lettiska flyktingarna. Flyktingarnas reaktioner studeras genom en rad lettiska tidningar som utgavs i Väst. Min avhandling visar hur väl utvecklade strategier användes i syfte att framkalla önskade reaktioner från flyktingarna, samt vilka motåtgärder flyktingar själva utvecklade mot repatrieringskampanjen. Mer specifikt analyseras standardberättelser i Par atgriešanos Dzimtenē som var avsedda för flyktingarnas självidentifiering och igenkännande. Avhandlingen pekar på att den sovjetiska repatrieringskampanjen var en mycket komplex propagandaverksamhet. Utöver det offentligt tillkännagivna kampanjmålet fanns flera parallella målsättningar och avsikter som omfattade en stor mängd skiftande aktiviteter. En strategi som användes aktivt var vilseledning, bl a för att dölja verksamheter riktade mot flyktingarna, och för att förvilla statsledningar och myndigheter i de nationer där flyktingarna vistades. Avhandlingens slutsats är att trots den sovjetiska överlägsenheten i organisation och resurser kunde en liten oförsvarad och inom sig splittrad lettisk gemenskap motstå de samordnade ansträngningar från den sovjetiska propagandan.