Pulses are an important component in crop rotations in the semiarid Brown soil zone of southern Saskatchewan, Canada. Besides their capability to fix nitrogen, pulse crops establish a strong symbiotic relationship with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), which have been shown to increase nutrient and water uptake through hyphal extensions in the soil. Incorporating strongly mycorrhizal crops in a rotation may increase inoculum levels in the soil and benefit the growth of a subsequent crop. The objective of this study was to determine if AMF potential and colonization of a durum crop is significantly affected by cropping history and to assess the impact of pulses in crop rotations on the abundance and diversity of AMF communities in the soil. In 2004 and 2005, soil, plant, and root samples were taken on Triticum turgidum L. (durum) with preceding crops of Pisum sativum L. (pea), Lens culinaris Medik (lentil), Cicer arietinum L. (chickpea), Brassica napus L. (canola) or Triticum turgidum L. (durum). Although there were few differences in soil N and P levels, previous crop had a significant effect (p<0.05) on durum yields in both years. A previous crop of pea was associated with the highest yields, while the durum monocultures were lowest. Arbuscular mycorrhizal potential and colonization were significantly affected (p<0.05) by cropping history, but not consistently as a result of inclusion of a pulse crop. Phospholipid and neutralipid fatty acids (PLFA/NLFA) were completed to analyse the relative abundance of AMF (C16:1ù5), saprophytic fungi (C18:2ù6), and bacteria in the soil. The effect of treatment on the abundance of AMF, saprotrophic fungi and bacteria were not significant (p<0.05), but the changes over time were. These results demonstrate that although previous crop may play a role in microbial community structure, it is not the only influencing factor.

Le blé dur (Triticum durum Desf, BD), tout comme le blé tendre (Triticum aestivum L. em Thell, BT), est une céréale très touchée par la septoriose, une maladie foliaire causée par le champignon hémibiotrophe Zymoseptoria tritici. D'une part, ce présent travail a permis d'étudier l'interaction compatible du blé-Z. tritici. L'étude de l'interaction compatible chez les pathosystèmes BD/St-08-46 et BT/TO1193 a révélé l'induction des mêmes voies de défense chez les deux pathosystèmes étudiés mais avec différentes intensités. Ensuite, l'étude de l'interaction de Z. tritici avec un cultivar résistant de blé dur a mis en évidence l'association de résistance au champignon est liée à l'inhibition de la pénétration directe, la sporulation et l'activité des enzymes fongiques de dégradation des parois cellulaires de la plante (endo-β-1,4-xylanase, endo-β-1,3-glucanase et protéase). Ces derniers sembleraient être fortement liés à la sévérité de Z. tritici aussi bien chez le dur que le blé tendre. En plus, on a pu démontrer moyennant des analyses qRT-PCR l'intervention de plusieurs gènes dans la résistance du blé dur à la septoriose à savoir les gènes PR2 (β-1,3-glucanase), Chi 4 precursor (précurseur de chitinase de la classe IV), Pox (peroxydase), Msr (méthionine sulfoxide réductase) et Bsil1 (inhibiteur de protéases). D'autre part, le potentiel des stimulateurs de défenses naturelles de plantes (SDPs) à protéger aussi bien le blé dur que le blé tendre contre les maladies fongiques a été évalué. Trois extraits naturels dont les matières actives sont l'acide ascorbique (AA), des oligosaccharides de parois cellulaires de plantes (Oligos) et algue brune (Ascophyllum nodosum, A. nod) ont été testés pour la première fois sur le blé. Leur effet antifongique (direct) ainsi que l'effet inducteur des mécanismes de défense du blé (indirecte) ont été bien caractérisés moyennant des analyses moléculaires, biochimiques et cytologiques. En effet, seul l'AA a montré un effet direct sur la germination des spores et la croissance mycélienne du Z. tritici associé à l'induction des mécanismes de défense du blé. Par contre, les protections obtenues par l'Oligos et l'A. nod semblent être exclusivement liées à leurs propriétés inductrices de la défense qui ont permis de ralentir le développement du champignon ainsi que d'inhiber l'activité des CWDEs fongiques et la sporulation. D'ailleurs, il s'est avéré que les SDPs testés sembleraient agir sur les mêmes mécanismes de défense chez les deux espèces de blé. Ils pourraient induire l'activation (i) des protéines PR, (ii) les enzymes antioxidants (peroxydase et catalase), (iii) les protéines PAL et LOX (enzymes clés de la voie des phénylpropanoides et la voie des octadécanoides, respectivement) et (iv) l'accumulation des H₂O₂ et le dépôt des polyphénols au niveau des sites de pénétration du champignon, ont été mis en évidence. Egalement, ils pourraient emprunter les mêmes voies utilisées par le cultivar résistant Salim en réponse à l'infection par le champignon et pourraient même induire une réponse plus importante des gènes de défense du blé dur tels que les gènes PR2, Pox, Msr, ATPase et Bsil. De même, deux applications (préventif et curatif) des SDPs testés a révélé une protection intéressante contre la maladie associée, dans le cas de l'A. nod et des AA, à une augmentation de la teneur en chlorophylle et l'amélioration de la quantité et de la qualité du rendement du cultivar sensible Karim. Par contre, pour le cultivar résistant Salim l'application des SDPs semble être inutile. En conclusion, l'application des SDPs au bon stade et avec les bonnes concentrations sur des cultivars sensibles pourraient aboutir à des résultats d'efficacité et rendement similaires à celles des cultivars résistants. Ainsi, elle pourrait remplacer l'utilisation des cultivars résistants, surtout avec l'absence de cultivars complètement résistants disponibles pour l'agriculteur en Tunisie. / The durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf, DW) as well as the bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L. em Thell, BW) is strongly affected by septoria leaf blotch (STB) caused by the hemibiotrophic fungus Zymoseptoria tritici. First, the present work was used to study of the compatible interaction wheat-Z-tritici. The study of the compatible interaction among pathosystems BD/St-08-46 Z-tritici strain an BT/TO1193 Z-tritici strain revealed the induction of defense pathways in both studied pathosystems, but with slight differences. Then, the study of the interaction of Z. tritici with a resistant durum wheat cultivar showed the fungus resistance of association is related to the inhibition of the direct penetration, sporulation and the avtivity of the fungal enzymes degrading plant cell walls (endo-β-1,4-xylanase, endo-β-1,3-glucanase and protease). They seem to be strongly related to the severity of Z. tritici in both BW and DW. In addition, this study revealed the involvement of several genes in the resistance of DW against Z. tritici such as PR2 genes (β-1,3-glucanase), Chi 4 precursor (precursor of Class IV chitinase), Pox (peroxidase), Msr (methionine sulfoxide reductase) and Bsil (protease inhibitor). On the other hand, the potential of resistance inducers (RIs) to protect BW and DW against STB disease was evaluated. Three natural extracts based on ascorbic acid (AA), plant cell wall oligosaccharides (Oligos) and brown algae (Ascophyllum nodosum, A. nod.) were tested for the first time on wheat. Their antifungal effect (direct) and the effect of inducing wheat defense mechanisms (indirect) have been well characterized through molecular, biochemical and cytological. We recorded that only AA exhibited a direct effect on spore germination and hyphal growth of Z. tritici associated to the induction of wheat defense mechanisms. However, conferred protection by Oligos and A. nod appears to be exclusively related to their plant defense inducing properties witch promoted the decrease of fungal CWDE activities and sporulation. Moreover, tested SDPs seem to enhance same defense pathways in both wheat species. They could induce the activation of (i) PR proteins, (ii) the antioxidant enzymes (catalase and peroxidase), (iii) the protein PAL and LOX (key enzymes of the phenylpropanoid and octadecanoid pathways, respectively) and (iv) the cytological accumulation of H₂O₂ and polyphenols, were highlighted. Also, they seem to use same pathways involved in durum wheat resistance mecanisms and may even induce a higher response of defense-related genes as PR2, Pox, Msr, ATPase, and Bsil. In general, protection conferred by tested RIs seems to be dependent on their composition, but it remains constant whatever of the wheat species. Similarly, in filed tested RIs conferred as interesting protection against STB associated, in the case of the A. nod and AA, with increased chlorophyll content and improving yield quantity and quality of the susceptible cultivar Karim, while in the resistant cultivar Salim, the application of RIs seems to be useless. In conclusion, protection conferred by tested RIs seems to be dependent on their composition, but it remains constant whatever of the wheat species. The use of RIs may improve the resistance level and yield of susceptible cultivars in order to obtain similar results to the resistant cultivars. Thus, it could replace the use of resistant cultivars especially with the lack of completely resistant cultivars available to farmers in Tunisia.

Wie die Dur-Moll-Tonalität in die Modalität der ›Kirchentöne‹ vordrang, gehört zu den Kernfragen des 17. Jahrhunderts. Ein aufschlussreiches Beispiel dafür gibt Heinrich Schütz in seinem 1628 erschienen, 1661 überarbeiteten und komplettierten Becker-Psalter mit insgesamt 158 Sätzen, die meisten mit eigener Melodie. Nicht erst in der Dur-Moll-Tonalität, sondern bereits bei den Kirchentönen existieren jeweils 24 ›Dur‹- und ›Moll‹-Tonarten, jedoch in grundverschiedener Ausprägung, wobei die kirchentonale Ordnung die generelle Verwendung von b-durum (Tonstufe h) bzw. b-molle (b) betrifft, nicht wie im Spätbarock und später die Anzahl der b- oder Kreuz-Vorzeichen. Schütz Musik gründet sich noch gänzlich auf die 24 Modi, die in seinem Becker-Psalter nahezu vollständig vertreten sind mit deutlichem Übergewicht der dorischen und jonischen Modi. Während Schütz den äußeren Rahmen der durum- und molle-Vorzeichnung beibehält, erweitert er diesen jedoch teils mit Hilfe eingefügter Akzidentien bis as, so dass dadurch faktisch weitere Transpositionen wie c-Dorisch und B-Jonisch entstehen. Wesentliche Bedeutung zur tonalen Einordnung kommt den angestrebten Kadenzstufen zu, seit Zarlino den traditionellen ›Hauptstufen‹ I, V und III als erst-, zweit- und drittrangige regulares. Zahlreiche Sätze auch bei Schütz halten sich an diese Rangordnung. Ergänzend können als weitere Kadenzstufen die IV. und VI., ausnahmsweise auch die II. oder VII. Stufe als irregulares oder gar peregrinae (fremde) hinzukommen, wobei die hexachordale Ordnung (Hexachorde auf c und f) prinzipiell nicht überschritten wird. Eine Statistik der im Becker-Psalter angestrebten Kadenzstufen zeigt, dass sich Schütz zwar an diesen Stufen orientiert, sie aber auch um individuelle Varianten ergänzt. Wer die Sätze näher untersucht, stößt unweigerlich auf wesentliche Differenzen ›duraler‹ und ›mollarer‹ Modi, also solchen mit großer bzw. kleiner Terz über dem Modus-Grundton. Zum einen tritt in ›mollaren‹ Sätzen, vornehmlich im Dorischen und Äolischen, die III. Stufe als Kadenzziel deutlich hervor, während in den ›duralen‹ Sätzen, allen voran im Jonischen, die VI. Stufe weitaus überwiegt. Man kann, modern gesprochen, jeweils eine Präferenz der ›Paralleltonart‹ konstatieren, im späteren ›Dur‹ die VI., in ›Moll‹ die III. Stufe. Zum andern spielt im Jonischen die V. Stufe eine der I. nahezu gleichberechtigte Rolle, so dass ›durale‹ Klänge vorherrschen. In ›mollaren‹ Modi rangiert die III. Stufe (›Paralleltonart‹) weit oben. Im Jonischen existiert eine auf Dur-Stufen zentrierte Abstufung des hexachordalen Gefüges, im Dorischen und Äolischen eher eine Durchmischung der Moll- und Dur-Stufen. Überspitzt formuliert: Jonische Sätze wirken nicht selten wie reines ›Dur‹, dorische oder äolische keineswegs wie reines ›Moll‹ − sie verfügen über den größeren Reichtum an ›Klangfarben‹. Dass es auch in Schütz’ Becker-Psalter weit mehr dorische als äolische Sätze gibt, dafür dürfte vor allem die Kadenzierung zur V. Stufe verantwortlich sein, die im Dorischen problemlos über E-Dur nach a-Moll erfolgen kann, was zur äolischen V. Stufe der fehlenden H-Dur-Stufe wegen zu unterbleiben hat. Noch bei Schütz wird dieser Schritt kaum gewagt. Sein Werk befindet sich in einem Übergang, den erst das 18. Jh. hin zur geregelten Dur-Moll-Tonalität endgültig vollzieht und dabei auch die Schranken zu höherer Vorzeichnung durchbricht. / One of the key issues of the 17th century is the question of how major-minor tonality entered the system of church modes. It was not only in major-minor tonality that 24 “major” and “minor” keys came into being, but already in the church modes, albeit in a fundamentally different guise. The system of church modes revolves around the general use of b-durum (starting from B natural) and b-molle (B flat), not the number of flat or sharp accidentals used from the late Baroque onwards. Schütz’s music was still based entirely on the 24 modes, almost all of which appear in his Becker Psalter, with a clear emphasis on the Dorian and Ionian. While Schütz retains the outer framework of the durum and molle keys, however, he expands it by inserting accidentals extending to A flat, resulting in further transpositions such as C Dorian and B flat Ionian. For tonal classification, the cadential scale degrees aimed for take on central significance: since Zarlino, the traditional “main degrees” I, V and III as primary, secondary and tertiary regulares. In Schütz’s music too, many movements follow this hierarchy. These are sometimes supplemented by further cadential degrees: IV and VI, in exceptional cases also II or VII as irregulares or even peregrinae (“alien” degrees), though the hexachordal framework (hexachords on C and F) remains fundamentally in place. A statistical analysis of the cadential degrees aimed for in the Becker Psalter shows that Schütz takes these degrees as points of reference, but also adds to them with individual variants. If one examines the movements closely, one inevitably encounters considerable differences between durum and molle modes, i.e. those with major or minor thirds above the root note. Firstly, in molle movements, primarily in the Dorian and Aeolian modes, III stands out clearly as a cadential goal, whereas in the durum movements, especially the Ionian ones, VI is obviously predominant. To use modern terms, one could say that each case shows a preference for the “relative key”: in the later “major” it is VI, in “minor” it is III. Secondly, in the Ionian, the fifth degree has almost the same standing as the first, which means that durum harmonies predominate. In molle modes, the third degree (the “relative key”) is very important. In the Ionian, there is a gradation of the hexachordal structure centred on major degrees, while in the Dorian and Aeolian it is more of a mixture of minor and major degrees. To exaggerate a little, Ionian movements not infrequently seem like pure “major”, while Dorian or Aeolian ones are not at all like pure “minor”; the latter have a greater wealth of “tone colours”. The fact that there are far more Dorian than Aeolian movements in Schütz’s Becker Psalter is most likely due to cadences towards the fifth degree, which are easily carried out in the Dorian via E major to A minor, while cadences towards V in the Aeolian are impermissible on account of the missing B major degree. Even Schütz was barely bold enough to take this step. His work is located in a transition to regular major-minor tonality that would only be finally completed in the 18th century, also breaking the barrier to more complex key signatures.

Barley yellow dwarf (BYD), caused by Barley yellow dwarf virus and Cereal yellow dwarf virus, and is a yield limiting disease of small grains. A research study was initiated in 2015 to identify the implications of BYD on small grain crops of North Dakota. A survey of 187 small grain fields was conducted in 2015 and 2016 to assess cereal aphid diversity; cereal aphids identified included, Rhopalosiphum padi, Schizaphis graminum, and Sitobion avenae. A second survey observed and documented field absence or occurrence of cereal aphids and their incidence. Results indicated prevalence and incidence differed among respective growth stages and a higher presence of cereal aphids throughout the Northwest part of North Dakota than previously thought. Field and greenhouse screenings were conducted to identify hard red spring wheat and durum responses to BYD. Infested treatments in the greenhouse had significantly lower number of spikes, dry shoot mass and yield.

Differences in pea (Pisum sativum L.) and chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) microbial compatibility and/ or their associated farming practices may influence root fungi of the following crop and affect the yield. The main objective of this research was to explain the difference in durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L.) yield the year after pea and chickpea crops through changes in the functional diversity of wheat root fungi. The effect of fungicides used on chickpea on the root fungi of a following durum wheat crop was studied using plate culture and pyrosequencing. Pyrosequencing detected more Fusarium spp. in the roots of durum wheat after fungicide-treated chickpea than in non-fungicide treated chickpea. Plate culture revealed that the functional groups of fungi responded differently to fungicide use in the field but the effect on total community was non-significant. Highly virulent pathogens were not affected, but antagonists were suppressed. More fungal antagonists were detected after the chickpea CDC Luna than CDC Vanguard. Fungal species responded differently to the use of fungicides in vitro, but the aggregate inhibition effect on antagonists and highly virulent pathogens was similar. The effect of chickpea vs. pea previous crop and different chickpea termination times on root fungi of a following durum wheat crop was studied. The abundance of Fusarium spp. increased after cultivation of both cultivars of chickpea as compared to pea according to pyrosequencing and was negatively correlated with durum yield. Plate culture analysis revealed that fungal antagonists were more prevalent after pea than both cultivars of chickpea and chickpea CDC Vanguard increased the abundance of highly virulent pathogens. The abundance of highly virulent pathogens in durum wheat roots was negatively correlated to durum yield. Early termination of chickpea did not change the community of culturable fungi in the roots of a following durum crop. It is noteworthy that Fusarium redolens was identified for the first time in Saskatchewan and its pathogenicity was confirmed on durum wheat, pea and chickpea. The classical method of root disease diagnostics in cereals is based on the examination of the subcrown internode. I evaluated the method by comparing the fungal communities associated with different subterranean organs of durum wheat. The fungal community of the subcrown internode was different from that of roots and crown, suggesting cautious use of this method.

La salinidad y el estrés hídrico son los factores más importantes que limitan la producción de trigo duro, sobre todo en regiones áridas y semiáridas, como la región Mediterránea. El trigo duro es uno de los principales cultivos en el sur y este de la Cuenca Mediterránea, donde se cultiva frecuentemente en condiciones de secano y si es posible con riego deficitario, a menudo con agua de poca calidad, que junto a una elevada evapotranspiración, puede provocar una progresiva salinización del terreno. En este sentido, la mejora genética de trigo duro para una mejor adaptación a estas condiciones de estrés es una de las pocas alternativas viables. El objetivo general de esta Tesis es estudiar las bases fisiológicas y moleculares de las diferencias genotípicas en crecimiento potencial y tolerancia a la salinidad y el estrés hídrico. En un primer estudio (Experimento 1) publicado en “Functional Plant Biology” se investigó qué criterio fenotípico de selección era el más adecuado para seleccionar genotipos de trigo duro que crecieran mejor en condiciones de salinidad continuada. De esta forma se determinó la importancia de los isótopos estables como criterios eficientes para seleccionar genotipos tolerantes y susceptibles a la salinidad. Posteriormente, se realizó un segundo estudio (Experimento 2) donde se evaluó el efecto de la salinidad en la composición isotópica del carbono (δ13C) y el nitrógeno (δ15N) de genotipos de trigo duro y de dos amfiploides (un tritordeo y un triticale). Este trabajo está publicado en la revista “Journal of Experimental Botany”. En este segundo ensayo, la salinidad se aplicó durante la floración y el llenado del grano durante unas pocas semanas. Los resultados de este trabajo representaron la puesta a punto del estudio del comportamiento fisiológico del trigo duro durante la fase reproductiva y bajo diferentes combinaciones de salinidad y riego. Como continuación de los dos Experimentos (1 y 2) y en vista de los resultados obtenidos en el uso de las firmas isotópicas como criterio de evaluación bajo condiciones salinas, se planteó evaluar el uso combinado de la composición isotópica del carbono (δ13C), oxígeno (δ18O) y el nitrógeno (δ15N) en materia seca para observar las respuestas genotípicas de plantas de trigo duro sometidas a diferentes combinaciones de salinidad. Como contribución original, se elaboró un modelo conceptual de las tres firmas isotópicas juntas (δ13C, δ18O, δ15N) junto con características del metabolismo nitrogenado para explicar las diferencias genotípicas en tolerancia a distintas condiciones de salinidad y estrés hídrico. También se evaluaron las características fotosintéticas en relación con las firmas isotópicas y las actividades de enzimas clave del metabolismo nitrogenado. (Trabajo Publicado en la revista “New Phytologist”). Además de los resultados anteriores obtenidos, en esta Tesis se comparó la eficiencia de las firmas isotópicas del carbono, oxígeno y nitrógeno mediante dos vías: muestras de materia seca y muestras de fracción soluble en genotipos de trigo duro para la evaluación de diferencias genotípicas en tolerancia a diferentes condiciones de salinidad y regimenes hídricos. Posteriormente se analizó la respuesta genética de plantas de trigo duro a la salinidad evaluando el nivel de transcripción de genes específicos asociados a tolerancia a salinidad y estrés hídrico, junto a otros que codifican para enzimas claves del metabolismo nitrogenado. También se han estudiado las relaciones entre estas tasas de transcripción, las diferencias genotípicas en crecimiento, firmas isotópicas y actividades de enzimas del metabolismo nitrogenado. El trabajo ha mostrado la eficacia de los isótopos estables de carbono y del nitrógeno como herramientas de evaluación de la respuesta del trigo duro frente a la salinidad. / Inadequate irrigation for long term and under conditions of high evapotranspiration demand, combined with the use of poor water quality and the lack of adequate drainage frequently induces the salinization of arable land causing a significant increase in the area affected by salinity. Salinity is an environmental factor that limits in a remarkable manner the production of crops in many parts of the world, but especially in arid and semiarid regions like the Mediterranean. Under these conditions, which is often grown durum wheat improvement for tolerance to salinity under irrigation deficit may be one of the strategies to alleviate this problem. This Thesis shows that isotope compositions of carbon (δ13C), oxygen (δ18O), and nitrogen (δ15N) and the concentration of nitrogen in dry matter are potentially and effective criteria for discriminating between different growing conditions and between genotypes tolerant or susceptible to salt. Furthermore, the results of this study reflect the importance of nitrogen metabolism in tolerance to salinity. Additionally, this thesis develops a model relating genotypic tolerance to different conditions of salinity and drought with the signatures of the three isotopes (C, O, N), together with photosynthetic and transpiration exchanges and parameters key of nitrogen metabolism such as nitrogen concentration and activities of the glutamine synthetase and nitrate reductase. Finally, we study the relationship between the expression of genes potentially key in the tolerance to salinity and drought and genotypic variability in response to different combinations of these stresses.