The catastrophic eruption of the Indonesian volcano Mt. Tambora in April 1815, which ejected a cloud of sulfur dioxide into the upper atmosphere, plunged the world into a rapid temporary climate change event. A series of bizarre weather anomalies, including snowstorms in June and repeated heavy frosts throughout the rest of the summer, earned 1816 the moniker "the Year Without a Summer." This paper examines the various ways in which Americans reacted to the climate change--seeking causation explanations through science and superstition, political and religious responses, and the efforts to appreciate what the events meant in terms of the world's changing climate. Through these various reactions, a picture emerges of Americans' incomplete understanding of science and nature, as well as an uneasy reckoning with the impossibility of fully explaining their environment and the potential dangers it presented to them.

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馮叔鸞作為活躍於民國初年的報刊劇評家之一，身兼編、演、評數職。作為劇作家，他創作了十餘種戲劇劇本，其中不少曾經被搬上舞台。作為戲劇活動家，他經常客串戲劇演出，創辦過戲劇雜誌，並參與過戲劇教育工作。作為戲劇批評家，他發表了大量劇評文章，兼及戲劇常識的介紹與戲劇史料的搜集整理。其中，集結成冊的有《嘯虹軒劇談》一書，其餘則散見於當時各類報刊雜誌之中。 本文以馮叔鸞之戲劇評論，及其提出的「戲學」概念為主要研究對象，將其置於新舊並陳的民初劇壇，以及戲劇理論批評近代化轉型之大背景下，通過對其戲劇活動資料的盡可能搜集與整理，在完善其個人資料的同時，深入分析其劇評文章，歸納總結其戲劇觀及企圖建構的戲劇批評體系。並試圖給予這一因歷史原因而多有被忽視的人物更多關注，以及相對公允合理之評價。 馮氏「戲學」之批評面向主要包括戲劇本體、編劇、演員、表演、劇場、觀眾以及戲劇與社會之關係等，而其新舊並重、分而論之、融會貫通的改良觀則始終貫穿於各個面向之中。「戲學」之實踐與應用，還可從其戲劇批評觀中展現，通過對於劇評界時弊之針砭，馮氏提出了自己對於劇評的界義，以及劇評家所應當具備的學識及道德水準。馮氏「戲學」概念的提出，尤其是囊括新舊的批評範疇，以及將「戲學」樹立為一門獨立學科的願景，無疑對學科界定意義重大，或可謂為現代戲劇學學科建立之先聲。 / Feng Shuluan was one of the most famous drama critic in the early Republic of China. As a dramatist, he wrote more than ten scripts, most of which were staged. As a dramatic activist, he took part in many performances and dramatic education activities, as well as dramatic magazine editing works. Moreover, he wrote extensively on several topics as a drama critic, including dramatic basics and the history of drama. Some of them were later put together in the book <Xiaohongxuan’s drama criticism>. Others were published on the newspapers and magazines. This study regards Feng Shuluan’s drama criticism as the main research object. While collecting original data of him, special attention is paid on this nearly forgotten historical figure and his dramatic theory. With the analysis of his work, this study will endeavor to give him an adequate appraisal. Feng Shuluan’s dramatic criticism includes ontology, function theory, script theory, performance theory, theatre theory, audience theory and improved theory. He found out many problems of the critics at that time, and proposed the knowledge and moral standard a drama critic should possess. He tried to establish his drama criticism including both Chinese traditional opera and western drama as a new subject, which was a significant development of the dramatic theory and criticism.

Historians have never formed a consensus over the Essex Junto. In fact, though often associated with New England Federalists, propagandists evoked the Junto long after the Federalist Party’s demise in 1824. This article chronicles uses of the term Essex Junto and its significance as it evolved from the early republic through the 1840s.

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Margaret Bayard Harrison Smith was a prominent member of early Washington City society from the time she and her husband, Samuel Harrison Smith, moved to the blossoming capital in 1800 until her death in 1844. As a longtime resident of Washington, Margaret spent most of her adult life navigating the unique socio-political waters of the capital and developing friendships with many of the most prominent politicians of her time. Mrs. Smith's writings provide firsthand accounts of several important political events including Congress' role in the election of 1800, Jefferson's first inauguration, Madison's first inauguration, and the destruction left by the British after the siege of Washington. Her writings also provide a picture of early undeveloped Washington City, where grand public buildings were largely surrounded by wilderness and connected by muddy roads. While this work looks at the social and political environment that Margaret Smith experienced, it also examines many of the personal concerns that frequented Mrs. Smith's writings. Margaret's views on educating her children, interacting with servants, interacting with the enslaved population of Washington, and dealing with feelings of isolation, due to the distance from her family, are frequently addressed in her letters. Focusing on these aspects of Mrs. Smith's writings allows for a greater examination of the societal norms of her day about gender, class, and race. While Margaret's letters and commonplace books have often been used to examine Washington society and the lives of her prominent friends, there is no biography of Mrs. Smith herself. This dissertation provides the first biography of Margaret Bayard Harrison Smith from her birth until the end of the War of 1812.

ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION PENNSYLVANIA’S LOYALISTS AND DISAFFECTED IN THE AGE OF REVOLUTION: DEFINING THE TERRAIN OF REINTEGRATION, 1765-1800 by René José Silva Florida International University, 2018 Miami, Florida Professor Kirsten Wood, Major Professor This study examines the reintegration of loyalists and disaffected residents in Pennsylvania who opposed the American Revolution from the Stamp Act crisis in 1765 through the Age of Federalism in 1790s. The inquiry argues that postwar loyalist reintegration in Pennsylvania succeeded because of the attitudes, behavior, actions and contributions of both disaffected residents and patriot citizens. The focus is chiefly on the legal battle over citizenship, especially the responses of the disaffected to patriot legislative measures such as treason, oaths of allegiance, attainders, confiscation, and militia service laws that revolutionaries employed to sanction dissent in the state. Loyalists and the disaffected contributed to their own successful reintegration in three ways. First, the departure of loyalist militants at the British evacuation of occupied Philadelphia in June 1778 and later substantially lessened internal political tensions associated with the rebellion. Second, the overwhelming majority of the disaffected who stayed in Pennsylvania adopted non-threatening attitudes and behaviors towards republican rule. And third, the disaffected who remained ultimately chose to embrace the new republican form of government they had earlier resisted. Patriots contributed to the successful reintegration of the disaffected chiefly through the outcome of the factional struggle for internal political supremacy between revolutionary radicals and moderates. Pennsylvania radicals used the rule of law to deny citizenship to opponents of the Revolution and pushed for their permanent exclusion from the body politic. Moderates favored a reincorporation of those who had not supported the rebellion, utilizing the law to foster inclusion. Moderate electoral victories in the decade of the 1780s led to solid majorities in the state assembly that rescinded all repressive measures against former opponents, in particular the 1789 repeal of the Test Act of 1777. The analysis stresses the activities of loyalists and the disaffected, exploring elite loyalist militants such as Joseph Galloway and the sons of Chief Justice William Allen; ordinary loyalist militants like John Connolly and the Rankin brothers of York County; Quaker pacifists such as the Pemberton siblings; loyalists whom patriots perceived as defiant, such as the Doan guerrilla gang and British collaborators Abraham Carlisle and John Roberts; and the Penn family proprietors. Each of these protagonists epitomized a particular strain of loyalism or disaffection in Pennsylvania, ranging from armed resistance to pacifism. Reintegration experiences and outcomes are therefore assessed in relation to these Pennsylvanians’ conduct before, during, and after the Revolutionary War.

ABSTRACT THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF THE 1923 GRECO-TURKISH POPULATION EXCHANGE UPON TURKEY Alpan, Aytek Soner M. Sc., Department of Economics Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Onur Yildirim August 2008, 167 pages The Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations signed on January 30, 1923 at Lausanne resulted in the first compulsory population exchange under the auspices of an international organization, namely the League of Nations. The Greco-Turkish Population Exchange marked a turning point for Greece and Turkey with regard to its demographic, social, political and economic effects. Although the multifaceted effects of the Exchange upon Greece have been extensively studied by the scholars of different disciplines, the Turkish scholarship is very limited in terms of documenting and analyzing the role of this event in the history of modern Turkey. The present study aims to fill this gap by assessing the economic effects of this event upon Turkey. This thesis fulfils the above task by examining the transformation of the basic sectors in the Turkish economy during the post-Exchange period. We argue that the Population Exchange had significant effects upon the Turkish economy. For example, in the agricultural sector the capitalist property relations on land were reinforced and the production patterns in certain agricultural crops were subject to a considerable degree of change. As far as the industry is concerned, the production of certain commodities deteriorated due to the rising competition between Turkey and Greece over the manufactured goods. The worsening international economic conditions exacerbated the effects of this competition upon the Turkish economy. Lastly, with the transfer of the Anatolian Greek merchants to Greece, Anatolia&rsquo / s commercial links with foreign markets weakened much to the detriment of the Turkish economy. The intermediary position of the Greek merchants was gradually substituted by the newly-emerging Turkish mercantile bourgeoisie after the Exchange. This thesis consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the subject and provides a survey of the related literature. Chapter 2 examines the effects of the Exchange upon agriculture and land tenure system. Chapter 3 is designed to evaluate the transformation of the industrial base inherited from the Ottoman Empire by certain factors including the Exchange. Chapter 4 deals with the effects of the transfer of the Anatolian Greeks and the arrival of the refugees upon the commerce. Chapter 5 presents general and specific conclusions in the light of previous chapters.

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