Die Neue Ökonomische Geographie (NEG) erklärt Agglomerationen aus einem mikroökonomischen Totalmodell heraus. Zur Vereinfachung werden verschiedene Symmetrieannahmen getätigt. So wird davon ausgegangen, dass die betrachteten Regionen die gleiche Größe haben, die Ausgabenanteile für verschiedene Gütergruppen identisch sind und die Transportkosten für alle Industrieprodukte die selben sind. Eine Folge dieser Annahmen ist es, dass zwar erklärt werden kann, unter welchen Bedingungen es zur Agglomerationsbildung kommt, nicht aber wo dies geschieht. In dieser Arbeit werden drei Standardmodelle der NEG um verschiedene Asymmetrien erweitert und die Veränderung der Ergebnisse im Vergleich zum jeweiligen Basismodell dargestellt. Dabei wird neben der Theorie auf die Methoden der Simulation eingegangen, die sich grundsätzlich auf andere Modelle übertragen lassen. Darauf aufbauend wird eine asymmetrische Modellvariante auf die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung Deutschlands angewandt. So lässt sich das Ausbleiben eines flächendeckenden Aufschwungs in den neuen Ländern, die starken Wanderungsbewegungen in die alten Länder und das dauerhafte Lohnsatzgefälle in einem Totalmodell erklären. / The new economic geography explains agglomerations based on a microeconomic general equilibrium model, witch is usually assumed to be symmetric in the sense, that regions are of the same size and transport costs and expenditure shares are the same. As a result, the models can explain why an agglomeration occurs, but not in witch region. This book modifies three of the most influential models of the new economic geography and assumes various asymmetries. It compares the results to the symmetric cases. Not only theoretical aspects but also methods of simulation are discussed in detail. This methods can be applied to a wide variety of models. To show the political implications of the theoretical results, one of the asymmetric models is applied to the economical development in germany after reunification. The model is able to explain the persistent difference in wages between east and west and the simultaneous incomplete agglomeration in the west.

This thesis consists of three main parts. The first and most important part, in terms of effort and time spent, is devoted to the estimation of the importance of accessibility for production at the firm or plant level using three different econometric estimation approaches. The results could have implications for the calculation of "wider" economic benefits of transport infrastructure, stemming from agglomeration externalities (e.g., scale economies). There are both methodological and result-wise conclusions that can be drawn from this research: methodologically, first, using unbalanced firm-level data requires the use of proxy variables to account for (initial) firm-specific unobserved productivity effects, and non-random exit from the dataset. Second, there are unsolved theoretical problems when applying an essentially aggregate approach to productivity analysis on disaggregate data, viz., relating to the existence of aggregate production functions, and to the aggregation of productivity from a disaggregate level to a more aggregate level in a spatial framework. Result-wise, clear productivity differences are presented, when comparing firms in the same time period but in different locations with different accessibility. However, it is not possible in this dataset to detect increased productivity for representative firms stemming from the opening of the Öresund link. It is therefore discussed whether the reason for this result could be the inappropriateness of output measures in a competitive business environment, where a large portion of the benefits are gradually transferred to consumers and thus remain unmeasured. Other, more comprehensive structural approaches to econometrics, including the demand side of the economy, are also recommended. The second part of the thesis treats an unjustly neglected area of transport research: the validation of transport demand models. These transport models are for example used to calculate the new traffic patterns and changes in accessibility from a transport infrastructure investment like the Öresund fixed link, around which most of this thesis orbits. The third and last part, written with two co-authors, deals with the "vulnerability" of the road network, in terms of effects on the travel time delays of the users when a link is disrupted. The calculated indices of importance and exposure could also be seen as extreme forms of accessibility, especially when there is no alternative route besides the one that is cut-off. / QC 20110513

This licentiate thesis examines why Åre, the premium skiresort of Sweden, is so successful inproducing new small and medium sized firms. Since the 1980s, Åre has been among the highestranked Swedish municipalities when it comes to new firm formation, and their survial rateis better than in the rest of the country. Åre is situated in the interior north of Sweden, and isthe only comparable municipality in that part of the country that has increased its popultion inrecent years. Other similar municipalities are facing a heavy decline in population. Åre has along history in the tourist industry and most newly started firms are connected to this industry.Some 450 000 visitors come annually, mainly in the wintertime, to experience Åre, which hasthereby developed into a local market with demand on a broad range of products and services.The aim with the licentiate thesis is to analyse what is causing the entrepreneurial processthat is taking place in Åre. The theoretical point of departure is found in theories of contemporaryeconomic geography with concepts like social capital, cluster and ”creative class” formingthe framework for the analysis. Path-dependence theory is also in focus when it comes tounderstanding the importance of local history and its footprint of today.The main data used in the thesis come from 34 semi-structured interviews with companyowners/managers representing private firms in Åre. Only individuals that have started theirbusiness or taken over the firm from a family member have been of interest in the study. Thepurpose is to get close to the persons behind the business and reveal why they became entrepreneursin the local context. The mainly qualitative analysis of the interview material is supplementedby a statistical analysis where a) Åre is compared with other similar municipalitiesin Sweden concerning for example the development of new business or unemployment rates.And b) where all individuals who have lived in Åre during the period of 1990-2008 are analyzedusing different variables concerning socio-economic background and occupation.The thesis shows the importance of the attraction to the local environment where newfirms are formed as a result of a strong local market and an positive entrepreneurial atmospherethat exists in Åre. Entrepreneurs in Åre have a diverse background, but with the passionfor skiing or outdoor activities as common denominators. Another important factor is thegathering of local actors in the destination around a future oriented vision that unites them.

Denne avhandlinga handler om hvordan meieribedrifter arbeider med nyskaping. De fleste norske meieribedrifter er en del av meierisamvirket, Tine, som karakteriseres ved å ha en hierarkisk organisasjonsstruktur og en standardisert industriell produksjon. For å forstå mer om nyskaping – eller innovasjon – i en bransje trengs mer enn kunnskap om bedriftenes indre forhold. Det er nødvendig å studere relasjoner og produkter i hele produksjonskjeden fra bonde til forbruker for å forstå endringer i meieribransjen. Ut fra dette er fire problemstillinger drøftet i avhandlinga: 1. Hvordan blir nyskaping organisert i meieribedrifter som er integrert i større innovasjonssystemer? 2. Hvordan påvirker lokale forhold nyskapingsprosesser i meieribedrifter? 3. Hvordan blir ulike kvaliteter innvevd i nye produkter fra meieribedrifter som arbeider med nyskaping? 4. Hvordan påvirkes nyskaping i meieribedrifter av øvrige ledd i verdikjeden for melk? Det er ofte ei lang rekke aktører som deltar i nyskapingsprosesser, og det er mange aktiviteter og handlinger som skal koordineres. Dette innebærer ofte ei brytning med gammel praksis, det vil si med etablerte konvensjoner og legitimeringsregimer. Nye handlinger som utvikles til en ny praksis må legitimeres i nye konvensjoner. Det innebærer ikke nødvendigvis et totalt brudd med etablerte konvensjoner eller et brudd med alle konvensjoner, men snarere må det oppnås kompromisser. Flere av eksempelbedriftene som er studert, arbeidet med mer radikale skifter, eller i det minste ”motstrøms” i forhold til de dominerende strategiene i bransjen. Slikt arbeid skaper også større potensial for konfrontasjoner og byr derfor på store utfordringer med å finne kompromisser. Den nye kompromisspraksisen må aksepteres for at det skal oppnås framdrift i arbeidet. Analysen viser at evnen til å bryte med noen av de etablerte konvensjonene er viktig. Slike evner blir en form for agenter for å endre organisasjonen. Hvem disse agentene er og måten de fungerer på, kan imidlertid være forskjellig. Både personifiserte entreprenører i bedriften og sterke relasjoner utenfor bedriften kan være slike brytningsagenter. Det er derfor viktig å betrakte organisasjoner som åpne systemer. En organisasjon som behersker flere sett av konvensjoner og regimer, og som er fleksibel både i forhold til konfrontasjoner og til å finne nye kompromisser mellom regimene, vil ha lettere for å endre seg og dermed ha et større nyskapingspotensial. Dette er i stor grad tause prosesser og vanskelig å planlegge. De lokale omgivelsene og relasjonene er ikke nødvendigvis viktige for bedriftens nyskapingsevne. Den territorielle utstrekninga av bedriftens relasjoner er ulik fra bedrift til bedrift, og relasjonene er viktige på ulike måter. Bedriftsspesifikke innovasjonsnett inneholder relasjoner som strekker seg over store distanser med varierende grad av tetthet eller nærhet. Bedriftene kan gjennom sine innovasjonsnett dermed inngå i flere produksjons- og innovasjonssystemer. Det betyr at systemene både er lokale og samtidig arena for agering over distanse. På mange måter kan meieribedrifter betraktes som ”isolerte øyer” i lokalsamfunnet, men samtidig er det gode eksempler på at lokale relasjoner – samarbeid mellom bedrift og lokalsamfunn – har vært avgjørende for nyskapinga. En ost, som andre produkter, må forstås gjennom et sett av likeverdige kvaliteter, eller karakteristikker, som ikke rangeres innbyrdes. Det betyr for eksempel at en osts materielle innhold, dens smak og lukt, dens innpakning, historiske opprinnelse og markedsføring, alle er kvaliteter ved osten. I avhandlinga presenteres og drøftes en modell med ulike forståelsesmodus av utforma matkvaliteter (modes of designed qualities). Disse forståelsene konstrueres i relasjonene mellom produsenter og forbrukere. Verdikjeden for melk preges både av strategisk maktutøvelse og uintenderte effekter av makt. Over tid er det utviklet en dominerende praksis for hvordan produksjon, distribusjon, produktutforming og markedsføring skal foregå. Denne dominansen preges av en standardisert masseproduksjon. Industrialiseringa i meierisamvirket la grunnlaget for dette, mens dagligvarekjedene har overtatt som pådrivere. Gjennom kjededannelsen på 1980- og 1990-tallet, har dagligvarehandelen klart å komme i en posisjon hvor de fungerer som dørvoktere til forbrukerne og er i stand til å strukturere næringsmiddelindustrien. I sum betyr dette at den nyskapende meieribedriften er helt avhengig av de andre leddene i verdikjeden. Dette gjelder ikke bare for få å produktene ut til forbruker, men også på hvilken måte dette skal skje og hvilke kvaliteter ved produktene som skal framheves eller utvikles. Meieribransjen domineres av samvirkeselskapet Tine, men også innenfor en tilsynelatende ensartet organisasjon som Tine er det variasjon. I avhandlinga er bedrifter som bidrar til variasjon i fokus. I avhandlinga legges det sterk vekt på aktører, handling og endring i og mellom organisasjoner, med andre ord: prosesser. Det er klare forbindelser til fagfeltet økonomisk geografi, sjøl om det trekkes veksler på flere samfunnsvitenskapelige fagfelt og slik sett gir avhandlinga et tverrfaglig preg. Vektlegginga av prosess og institusjonell tilnærming taler for en viss nærhet til evolusjonær økonomi. De fire problemstillingene er brede i en forskningsmessig forstand, sjøl om det er foretatt avgrensinger innen hver problemstilling. Bredden begrunnes i behovet for ei helhetlig tilnærming til nyskaping. Det er ikke mulig å forstå nyskaping ut fra bare ett isolert perspektiv eller svært avgrenset spørsmål. I avhandlinga er det anvendt tre teoretiske perspektiver som utfyller hverandre for å gi et slikt helhetlig bilde: teori om innovasjonssystemer, teori om kunnskapsproduksjon i organisasjoner og konvensjonsteori. Konvensjonsteori, som har røtter i fransk økonomisk sosiologi, er orientert mot praksis, eller snarere ulike praksiser. Kollektiv handling og endring er ofte knyttet til møter mellom ulike praksiser, og dette er relevant i forhold til endring i organisasjoner, nettverk og systemer. Videre inkluderer konvensjonsteori like gjerne materielle ting eller natur som aktører, i tillegg til mennesker som individer eller i grupper. Dette er nødvendig når et produkt som melk inngår i nyskapingsarbeidet. Med sitt prosess- og aktørorienterte perspektiv er avhandlinga et bidrag i en generell, teoretisk debatt om innovasjon og innovasjonssystemer. Det argumenteres for at meieribransjen, en bransje som vanligvis ikke blir framhevet i tilknytning til innovasjon, er relevant i forhold til denne teoretiske debatten. Analysen har overføringsverdi til bedrifter mer generelt, samt til landbrukssektoren ut fra at organiseringa av meieribransjen har store likhetstrekk med andre verdikjeder og bransjer som er landbruksbaserte. Overføringsverdi til bedrifter gjelder særlig bransjer hvor ”motstrømsbedrifter” arbeider med former for nyskaping som er marginale eller nærmest avvikende i forhold til de dominerende bedriftene i en bransje. Det er for eksempel relevant for bedrifter som inngår i større konsern eller strukturer som preges av industriell masseproduksjon organisert på en hierarkisk måte. I avhandlinga er det anvendt flere metoder for å belyse samme spørsmål. Metodetriangulering er gjennomført på to nivå. For det første er eksempelstudier kombinert med kvantitative undersøkelser for å få ei bredere belysning av problemstillingene. For det andre er deltakende observasjon, feltsamtaler, intervjuer og dokumentanalyser kombinert i gjennomføring av eksempelstudiene. Det viktigste datagrunnlaget er hentet fra eksempelstudier av fire meieribedrifter (tre i Norge og en i Wales), intervjuer av nøkkelinformanter i verdikjeden for melk, en spørreundersøkelse blant ledere av meieribedrifter og en forbrukerundersøkelse. / This doctoral thesis investigates how dairy firms work with innovation. Most Norwegian dairy firms belong to the farmer-owned co-operative, Tine, which has a hierarchical organisational structure with standardised industrial production. To understand innovation in a business sector, we need more than knowledge about internal conditions in firms. It is necessary to study relations and products throughout the supply chain from farmer to consumer to understand changes in the dairy sector. From this point of departure, four research questions are explored and discussed in this thesis: 1. How is innovation organised in dairy firms which are integrated in large innovation systems? 2. How do local conditions influence processes of innovation in dairy firms? 3. How are different qualities embedded into new products from innovative dairy firms? 4. How do other actors in the supply chain for milk influence innovation in dairy firms? Usually, a wide variety of actors participates in processes of innovation, and many activities and actions must be coordinated. This often entails a confrontation with old practice, i.e. with established conventions and modes of justice (‘orders of worth’ and ‘worlds’). New actions that develop into new practice must be justified in new conventions. This does not necessarily entail a complete break with old conventions, or a break with all old conventions, but rather a need for compromises. Several of the firms that have been studied worked with radical changes or at least with ‘reverse flow’ compared to the dominant strategies in the dairy sector. This kind of work creates greater potential for confrontations; to develop compromises is important but difficult. Accepting a new practice of compromises is essential to progress in work on innovation. The analysis in this thesis shows that capabilities to breach established conventions are crucial. These capabilities serve as agents to change organisations. Who these agents are and how they work may vary. Both personified entrepreneurs in the firm and strong relations outside the firm may be convention-breaking agents. Hence, it is important to consider organisations as open systems. An organisation that masters several sets of conventions and modes, and is flexible in relation both to confrontations and to finding new compromises between different modes of justice, will be more capable of changing and thus have greater potential for innovation. However, these are often tacit processes which are difficult to plan strategically. Local surroundings and local relations are not necessarily important for the firm’s capacity for innovation. The territorial extent of the firm’s relations differs from firm to firm, and relations are important in different ways. A firm-specific network of innovation includes relations extending over long distances with various degrees of density or proximity. Through their network of innovation, firms may be involved in several systems of production and innovation. This means systems function both locally and as arenas for acting at a distance. In many cases, dairy firms can be considered as ‘isolated islands’ in the local community. However, there are good examples of how local relations, i.e. co-operation between the firm and the local community, have been crucial to innovation. A cheese, like other products, must be interpreted through a set of qualities or characteristics that are not ranked against each other but are considered as a whole. The composition of a cheese as well as its taste, odour, packing, origin, and marketing are all examples of its qualities. In the thesis, a model of modes of designed qualities of food is presented and discussed. These modes are constructed in relations between producers and consumers. Within the value chain for milk, both strategic power and unintended effects of power are found. Over time a dominant practice is developed, prescribing methods of production, distribution, design, and marketing. This practice is characterised by standardised mass production. The foundation for this development was created when dairy co-operatives were industrialised, while retailer groups have taken over as driving forces. Through the formation of chains in the 1980-90s, retailers have manoeuvred into a position where they are doorkeepers to the consumer market and can structure the food industry. All in all, the innovative dairy firm is totally dependent on other actors in the value chain. This applies not only to the distribution of products to consumers, but also to methods, strategies, and qualities to be emphasised or developed. The Tine co-operative dominates the Norwegian dairy sector. However, there is wide variation even within a seemingly homogeneous organisation such as Tine. This thesis focuses on the firms that contribute to this variation. Actors, action, and change – or processes – within or between organisations are emphasised in this thesis. Obvious relations to economic geography can be found, although the thesis draws on several other disciplines in the social sciences as well. The emphasis on process and the institutional approach indicates some common ground with evolutionary economics. The four research questions raised in this thesis are broad, even if delimitations apply within each question. The main argument for this broad research approach is the need for a holistic perspective on innovation. It is not possible to understand innovation from an isolated perspective or with very narrow questions. In the thesis, three main theoretical approaches are applied: Theory on innovation systems, theory on knowledge creation in organisations, and convention theory. They are complementary theories that together provide a more holistic view. Convention theory, with roots in French economic sociology, is oriented towards practice, or rather towards a variety of practices. Collective action and change are often related to intersections between different practices, and this is relevant in relation to change in organisations, networks, and systems. Further, convention theory includes material things and nature as actors, in addition to individuals or groups of humans. This is important when a product such as milk is involved in innovation. Through a perspective on processes and actors, the thesis contributes to a general theoretical debate on innovation and systems of innovation. The dairy sector is seldom emphasised in research on innovation. However, in this thesis it is argued that this sector is relevant in this theoretical debate. The analysis is of value both in relation to firms in general and to agri-food sectors in general, because the organisational set-up in the dairy sector is very similar to other agri-food sectors. Insights from this analysis can be transferred to firms in general, especially in sectors where ‘reverse flow firms’ work on marginal kinds of innovation or diverge from the dominant firms in the sector. This may be the case for firms within larger groups of companies or structures characterised by industrial mass production organised in a hierarchical way. Several methods are applied to shed light on the research questions in this thesis. Method triangulation is carried out on two levels. First, case studies are combined with quantitative surveys to achieve a broader and general insight into the research questions. Second, participant observation, field conversations, interviews, and document analysis are combined in case studies. The most important empirical material has been derived from case studies of four dairy firms (three in Norway and one in Wales), interviews of key informants from the value chain of milk, a survey carried out among managers of dairy firms, and a consumer survey.

Sverige genomförde två stora kommunindelningsreformer under 1900-talet. Den ena varstorkommunreformen som kom 1952, och den andra var den så kalladekommunblocksreformen som kom 1974. Kommunreformen minskade antalet kommuner tillmindre än hälften och syftet var att varje kommun skulle kunna bära sina egna omkostnadergenom att skatteunderlaget skulle vara tillräckligt stort. Kommunerna i Halland var även de iolika grad involverade i kommunreformen och inställningen till denna varierade mellankommunerna. Det är då intressant att undersöka vilka skälen och attityderna tillkommunreformerna har varit, eftersom de bidragit till att ge en bild av samhället och denkommunpolitik som fördes i Halland vid tiden för sammanläggningarna samt att se om dethar skett en förändring över tid mellan förändringarna.Syftet med den här uppsatsen har varit att undersöka vilka attityderna och problemen vari Halland, och om de har varierat från den ena kommunreformen till den andra samt försökage en bakgrund till medborgarnas inställning.

Uppsatsen syftar till att beskriva, analysera och förstå kött- och charkindustrins koncentration i Slakthusområdet i Stockholm och vad området innebär för dess företag. Uppsatsen är en fallstudie och bygger på 18 intervjuer med representanter från företag, föreningar och förvaltningar i, och med anknytning till, Slakthusområdet. Vidare bygger den på teorier om agglomerationer och kluster. Utvecklingen av området kopplas till två drivkrafter i form av Stockholms stad och tillgången på råvaror och specialiserade lokaler. Slakthusområdet har kommit att bli ett nav eller en knutpunkt för kött, chark och andra livsmedelsprodukter. Den fysiska och sociala närheten i området medför många positiva egenskaper vilket genererar en trygghet för företagen. Som helhet har det skapat möjligheter och en förmåga hos företagen i Slakthusområdet att hålla en hög flexibilitets- och servicenivå. En förmåga som informanterna framhåller som sina respektive företags främsta konkurrensfördel och framgång.

This dissertation has the intention to discuss access to clean and safe water from an aspect of human rights. The aim is to investigate how access to clean and safe water is seen upon as a human right, and if the water situation would be influenced and perhaps improved if it was declared as an independent human right. The issue is mainly discussed from an overriding international perspective, but with focus on the situation in developing countries. This because it is often in these countries that the greatest deficiency of drinking water is occurring, and where the regimes do not ensure their population sufficient access to drinking water. The study also aims to describe the current discussion about whether to make clean and safe water an independent human right or not and to give an account of the arguments held by representatives of the different standpoints. A sort of inductive method is used in the dissertation and the analysis mainly is built upon the Indian economist Amartya Sens theories about entitlements and development. The study principally is based on literature, documents and reports on human rights and access to and legislation of clean and safe water. However, the study also includes some phone interviews and analyses in a Geographic Information System and the statistical program SPSS.

During certain seasons, rural and peripheral locations with significant numbers of second homes become the destination for major traffic and commodity flows. The outcome of this seasonal flow can be somewhat problematic and cause conflicts. One of the most controversial issues of conflict is whether the demand for second homes has a displacement effect on permanent residents. It has been argued that, especially in attractive destinations, the demand for second homes has caused an involuntary out-migration of permanent residents. More affluent second home buyers can outbid the competition from permanent residents. Hence, permanent residents must buy dwellings elsewhere, or must leave due to rising living costs through increased property taxes in the area. This thesis aims to study the issue of second home induced displacement in attractive second home locations in Sweden. This is justified because it is unknown to what extent second homes have contributed to the problems in these areas. The thesis consists of four empirical studies presented in four separate papers. The studies derive from two different data sources. The first three papers are based on official register data, whereas the fourth paper is based on data collected from a questionnaire survey. The first paper is aimed at finding possible locations of second home induced displacement in Sweden. Results show that areas with a positive population development, proximity to the sea and with long traditions of tourism seem to attract second home owners. The Stockholm archipelago has been deemed to be the most attractive second home region in Sweden and a place that may possibly harbour second home induced displacement. The second paper tests the displacement theory in a regional context in the Stockholm archipelago. Results show that the number of second homes has decreased in favour of permanent homes. Further, the permanent homes’ share of the total property values in the area is increasing. Hence, permanent homes have strengthened their position, implying that dwellings used for permanent purposes have a higher impact on price inflation for dwellings than second homes do. The Stockholm archipelago is in a state of repopulation rather than second home induced displacement. Paper three examines in- and out-migration and dwelling development in three case study islands in the Stockholm archipelago. Results show that these islands have the preconditions for displacement. However, results also show that individuals leave the islands for reasons associated with major events in life such as studies and job opportunities, not displacement. The final paper deals with second home related out-migration from the island of Sandö, one of the single most attractive destinations in Sweden. Results show that the out-migrants left the island on a voluntary basis and did not perceive themselves as being displaced. They state that their life improved after they left Sandö and they are, in general, not willing to return. The paper concludes that people move from the rural periphery to urban areas in order to find a better future and this move is not associated with a forced displacement. In conclusion, this thesis has shown that second home tourism is not a widespread problem or the main cause of depopulation in attractive second home destinations in Sweden. As for many other countries throughout the world, the preconditions for a displacement situation are present in many locations. However, other causes such as job opportunities and educational possibilities are more important in explaining the negative population development. Second home owners are described as an external threat to the traditional way of life and serve as convenient scapegoats, compared to less tangible and underlying causes, which are far more difficult to address.

The overall aim of this thesis is to survey and analyse young peoples’ geographical movements, and illustrate the similarities and differences that exist between different individuals.. The aim of the thesis is also to examine and discuss youth’s attitudes and motivation for different forms of geographical mobility. The youth focused on in this project reside in Norrland. The first phase, Mapping of the Geographical Movement of Youth, was carried out through the use of a questionnaire, sent to graduating students in upper secondary school. The second phase, Umeå  Students Abroad, was carried out by interviewing Umeå students who had either completed or were about to begin a period of foreign exchange. The third phase, Emigrants from Sweden, is based on statistics acquired from Sweden Statistics’ (SCB) and from the TOPSWING database. Home: The starting point of this thesis is the conception of “home”. The choice of path to take in life, and where students wanted to live in the future had significance for how they examined the choice between moving and staying; and the role of the home town in a longer perspective as to how the students viewed Umeå. Away: It is not just the place that a person comes from that says something about who she is, but also the place where she is going and the way in which she takes herself there. Many of the upper secondary school students that took part in the questionnaire had been abroad one or more times. Furthermore, many of the students would like to travel abroad again. At the same time, it can be said that there are also young people that do not have extensive experiences in travelling to other countries. Somewhere between home and away: The study shows that students may have very different views of their time abroad. The Tourist Student is one who chooses his/her destination in order to fulfil certain criteria and then mainly stays in the university town, “taking one day at a time.” He or she does not have a thought-out strategy for how the stay abroad should be carried out. The Travelling Student is the student who searches for a particular destination and later also has the ambition to get to know the country and the people that live there. The travelling student can be said to have a thought-out strategy for how to make the most out of his or her time in a foreign country. When away becomes home – or when home becomes home again: The interview study shows that to live abroad or to live in Sweden acquired a different meaning if you had a family. To have a family gives rise to a reason why one may choose to move back to Sweden. On the other hand there were also students for whom the home country was not important. A large portion of those who emigrated from Sweden during the study period moved back again. For those with a college or university education, a few years abroad can be a part of their choice of life path. It is something that one wants and from a career prospective, possibly should do. Rooted, rootless or restless young? The rooted are those who mainly live their entire lives in one place. The rootless represent a mobile life, where there is no home base, instead they create new ones as life passes. I would like to characterise most of the young people that in one way or another is featured in my study as restless. The restless combine, in different ways, the characteristics of both the rooted and the rootless. They are not unwilling to move, within the country, as well as to other countries, but they are at the same time rooted in their home town or in their home country.

What is the role of the consumer in the contemporary cultural economy? Where are culturaleconomy innovations and competitiveness created? This thesis aims to provide tentativeanswers to these questions by focusing on some illustrative examples from the Japanesecultural economy. However, rather than primarily describing firm strategies or industrialdynamics, emphasis is put on the places and practices of users. The thesis is based on a seriesof qualitative studies carried out between 2007 and 2009. In these studies various forms ofinteraction between consumption, innovation and space are highlighted. In the first article,media mix is analyzed. Media mix is the space in which media, images and narrativesinteract: a space where the user contributes to the introduction of new innovation into alreadyexisting concepts, and thereby, plays a crucial role in creating the mix. In the second article,the Akihabara district in Tokyo is analyzed. This is a place where consumers enable hightechnologyand popular culture to merge and where new trends and consumer cultures arecreated. In the third article, the mega event Comiket is analyzed. Comiket is a market foramateur artists involved in Japanese popular culture. It is a space where plagiarism andprovocation by mainstream Japanese popular culture are driving factors for creativity. Thethesis concludes by suggesting that the role of the consumer needs to be further emphasized inresearch on the cultural economy, as many users are active innovators, and create trends andpractices that shape global consumer cultures. / Japansk populärkultur har under de senaste årtiondena blivit väldigt uppskattadöver hela jorden. Manga (japanska serietidningar), anime (Japansk animeradfilm) och framförallt dataspel fascinerar, särskilt bland de yngre generationerna.Men var kommer då dessa kulturella uttryck ifrån och vem skapardem? Denna avhandling utforskar den kulturella ekonomins geografigenom att utifrån ett rumsligt perspektiv studera människor och platser somskapar, tolkar och utvecklar nya trender och produkter. I studien har fokusflyttats från etablerade produktutvecklare, företag och industriella drivkrafteroch tar med hjälp av tre separata artiklar sikte på att beskriva och tolkakopplingar mellan det rumsliga å ena sidan samt lärande och skapande åandra sidan. Avhandlingen har en tolkande ansats och baseras på kvalitativametoder som inspirerats av fenomenologin. Det empiriska materialet byggertill stor del på fältstudier som bedrivits i Japan under åren 2007-2009.Den första artikeln inleds med ett konstaterande av hur produktutvecklingsker inom den japanska leksaks- och spelindustrin. Idag är en vanlig metodför utvecklingen av berättelser att de sprids mellan olika former av medier.En mix av olika medier ger starka varumärken och trogna kunder. Samtidigtvisar studien att användaren är av central betydelse för skapandet av en helhetsupplevelse.Det är inte nödvändigtvis lisensägaren, en författare eller ettspecifikt företag som skapar produkternas konkurrenskraft. Istället är detmedia mixens sammantagna upplevelse som spelar en avgörande betydelseför användarna. Media mix möjliggör även att nya medier och berättelserkan introduceras av såväl företag som andra konsumenter.I den andra artikeln analyseras stadsdelen Akihabara i Tokyo som sedanlänge är känt som ett centrum för konsumtion av prylteknologi och hemelektronikmen som alltmer kommit att präglas av konsumtion av populärkulturi form av dataspel och anime-relaterade produkter. Akihabara är ettexempel på ett rum där kunskap och trender förmedlas och sprids; men ocksåskapas, utvecklas och förfinas. Platsen och dess användare spelar en avgöranderoll i dessa processer och konsumtion och konsumenternas handlingarär en grogrund för kulturella innovationer med konkurrenskraftiga kulturella uttryck. Artikeln ger därmed ett bidrag till diskussionen om innovativa miljöermed ett exempel som ligger långt bort från företagsparker och industriellakluster.Till sist, i en tredje artikel, analyseras Comik Market. Det är en mässa i Tokyoför manga där konstnärer i nära 40 år kunnat utväxla idéer, berättelseroch tekniker. Evenemanget har växt till en enorm happening där välkändastjärnor kan sälja sina varor bredvid helt okända nykomlingar. En viktigdrivkraft för skapandet är plagiat av redan etablerade och populära serier ochgenrer. Ofta är berättelserna provokativa och utmanande. Parallellt med seriernapågår dessutom utvecklandet av en besläktad populärkultur kallad cosplay.Vem som helst kan klä ut sig till sin favoritfigur och visa upp sig fördeltagarna. Skapandet och leken på mässan ger efterverkningar inom denjapanska kulturella ekonomin men avknoppas även utanför Japan. Idag finnsmånga liknande mässor runt om i världen där nya konsumenter och kreatörermöts och skapas. Artikeln är ett exempel på den event-baserade ekonominsom kräver spektakulära händelser för sin överlevnad. Samtidigt är det kreatörernasjälva som skapar och driver mässan trots etablerade mediakonglomeratoch myndigheter.På detta sätt ger avhandlingen uttryck för ett angreppssätt inom samhällsvetenskapendär kulturella och ekonomiska processer samspelar. Rumslighetenses som en avgörande komponent för skapandet av kulturella innovationer.Där masskulturen utvecklas, utvecklas också masskonsumtionen. De rumsom artiklarna belyser har därigenom en indirekt betydelse för den kulturellaindustrins konkurrenskraft. Dessutom, vid sidan av storföretagens mångmiljoninvesteringar och reklamjippon, framträder idag konsumenterna sombetydelsefulla innovatörer inom de kulturella näringarna. En av anledningarbakom detta är att värdet av kulturella produkter styrs av tillfälliga faktorersåsom trender och hajpar. Kunskap odlas och nytänkande frodas i utprägladekonsumtionskulturer och bland fans och kreativa konsumenter finns oftakärnan till många framgångsrika produkter. På detta sätt bidrar avhandlingentill förståelsen av samtidens kulturella ekonomi samt dess koppling till rummetoch konsumenten. Avhandlingen argumenterar därmed att forskningenpå kulturella näringar i högre grad bör uppmärksamma konsumenterna somaktiva kreatörer och värdeskapare. / 日本の文化経済に関する地理学的考察：イノベーションと創造的消費に着目して今日、日本のポップカルチャーはますます世界中で親しまれるようになった。マンガやアニメ、特にデジタル・ゲームは若者を中心に人気を集めている。日本文化の世界的展開を前にして、西欧諸国の人々が以下のような関心を抱くことも自然であろう。これらの文化的表現は一体どこで生まれ、また、誰によって制作されているのか。本研究の目的は文化経済の地理的現象について、新たなトレンドや製品を生み出し、解釈し、そして発展させる人々およびその空間について探求することである。もっとも、ここでは、定評のある作家・クリエーターや製品開発者、企業、さらには産業動態といった、一般的に文化経済研究において注目される観点に重きを置いていない。本研究を構成する三つの論考において、特定の空間と商取引や学習、創造性、革新性との関係を描き、検証することを課題としている。その方法として、解釈的アプローチ並びに現象学より着想を得た定性的分析を採用した。分析データについては、主に2007年から2009年の間に日本において行ったフィールドワークより収集したものを用いている。第一論文では、日本の玩具およびゲーム産業における製品開発を題材としている。物語や映像を展開する手段として、それらを様々なメディア形態へと配信していくことが一般的である。メディア媒体の混合を通じて、ブランドを創出し、根強い顧客を確保していく。西欧諸国において人気の高い二つの日本のキャラクターを検証して明らかとなったことは、メディア・ミックスの全体性を作り出す際の製品ユーザーの重要性である。その役割は必ずしも製品競争力に直結するようなライセンス取得者や作家・クリエーター、もしくは特定の企業であるとは限らない。むしろ、連結された体験こそがユーザーにとって重要である。新たな映像や物語が取り込まれるにつれてメディア・ミックスは発展する。その強さを促進する原動力はしばしばユーザーの手中にある。第二論文では東京都秋葉原を分析地域とした。この地域は家電製品やハイテク機器の商店が立ち並ぶ日本有数の電気屋街として知られている。近年では、デジタル・ゲームやマンガに関連した商品など、大衆文化の一大消費拠点でもある。秋葉原が知識やアイディアを交換する空間へと変化した結果、流行ならびに新たな文化的現象が創出され、評価され、そして発展していく場となっている。この過程において、秋葉原という特定の空間とその人々こそが重要であり、消費および消費者の諸活動が文化的イノベーションと競争力のある文化的表現を育てる。従って、本論考は、一般的なビジネスパークや産業クラスターの諸研究とは異なる観点からの、イノベーションおよびクリエイティブ・ミリュー論への貢献と位置づけられよう。第三論文ではコミックマーケットを分析対象としている。コミックマーケットは、参加者達のアイディアや物語、専門的技法といった情報交換の場として40年もの間に進化を遂げてきた。著名な作家・クリエーターにとって、本イベントは新たな読者・愛好家へと作品を広めるような開放的な空間をもつ大規模な催しへと発展した。そこで展示もしくは頒布される同人誌は挑発的であり挑戦的でもある。また、「コスプレ」を代表として、その他の多くの文化的現象も見られる。本イベントにおける創造的活動や遊びは、しばしば日本の文化経済に影響を与えるような新たなトレンドの契機となる。世界中にも消費者とクリエーターが出会い、触れ合うような同様のイベントは少なくない。本稿の事例は、大々的な催しを必要とするような、イベントを基礎とした経済活動の一例である。他方で、関連省庁やメディア・コングロマリットとは異なるような、ボトムアップ型で成功的に発展してきた文化経済の制度的催しの一例ともいえよう。以上のように、本研究では文化と経済過程の関係が相互的かつ互恵的となるような社会科学のアプローチを提示している。特定の場とユーザーは、大衆消費が確立され、大衆文化が発展するような空間において、文化的イノベーションを生み出す上で最も重要な役割を果たしている。従って、これらの空間は文化産業の競争力を間接的に左右している。今日、有力企業による大規模投資や高額な展示方法などに続き、消費者は文化経済の鍵となるイノベーターとして認識されよう。その理由の一つとして、文化的商品の価値が流行や誇張された宣伝のような偶然的要因によって決定される点と無関係ではない。これらはファンと創造的な消費者が有する独特の消費文化の中で開花することが多い。本稿が探求してきた点は、この消費と空間、延いては現代文化経済の理解についてである。文化産業に関する今後の研究は、制作プロセスに関与する積極的な主体として、ますます消費者に着目する必要があろう。