The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the origin and development of economic law. In doing this we may better determine whether our present theory of economic law is an element of scientific data or whether it merely leads to confusion and inconsistency. The purpose of this thesis is to see from where our ideas came, in the belief that confusion in a society is the result of the failure of ideas to correspond with reality.

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Alors que le recours à la normalisation est croissant dans le domaine des activités économiques, il est pertinent de constater que l’appréhension théorique du phénomène s’est bien souvent limitée à son identification technique.Pourtant, la normalisation doit être tenue pour un phénomène normatif plus vaste, dont les implications tant juridiques que pratiques ne peuvent être ignorées. La thèse ici présentée propose une étude d’ensemble du phénomène. Celle-ci fait apparaître son extraordinaire variété et la complexité de son articulation avec le droit économique. La réflexion partira du constat que la normalisation se manifeste à l’ordre juridique par l’intermédiaire de formes normatives variées, qui ne se limitent pas au domaine de la normalisation technique. Dès lors, l’adoption d’une analyse conceptuelle prend tout son sens. D’une part, elle permet de dégager qu’elles sont les caractéristiques permettant d’identifier les manifestations normatives relevant, ou non, d’un processus de normalisation. D’autre part, elle précise dans quelle mesure les normes issues de la normalisation sont porteuses de normativité juridique. Une telle analyse est logiquement complétée par une approche fonctionnelle du phénomène. Celle-ci révèle la contribution de ce processus à la mise en oeuvre du droit économique et précise dans quelle mesure il peut participer à sa création. Néanmoins l’articulation de la normalisation avec le droit économique ne se limite pas à la contribution de la première au second. Ainsi, l’étude de la confrontation de la normalisation à la matière nous permettra de relever que, si la normalisation facilite les échanges et dans une certaine mesure la concurrence, elle peut également restreindre la compétition entre les entreprises sur le marché. / While the use of standards is increasing in the field of economic activities, it is pertinent to note that the theoretical understanding of the phenomenon was often limited to technical identification. However, standardization should be held to a broader normative phenomenon, both legal and practical implications can not be ignored. The thesis presented here provides a comprehensive study of the phenomenon. This shows the extraordinary variety and complexity of itsrelationship with the economic law. Reflection based on the premise that standardization occurs in the legal system through various forms of standards, which are not confined to the field of technical standardization. Therefore, the adoption of a conceptual analysis makes sense. On the one hand, it allows to identify the characteristics that are used to identify normative events coming or not a process of normalization. On the other hand, it specifies how standards from standardization are carriers of legal normativity. Such analysis is logically complemented by a functional approach to the phenomenon. It reveals the contribution of this process to the implementation of economic law and specifies howt hey can participate in its creation. Nevertheless, the articulation of economic normalization with the law is not limited to the contribution of the former to the latter. Thus, the study of the confrontation of standardization in this area will allow us to observe that, although standardization facilitates trade and to some extent competition, it may also restrict competition between firms in the market.

The WTO is one piece in a complex network of international, regional and domestic legal systems and regulatory frameworks. The influences on the development of WTO law extend far beyond its own Members and institutions: domestic legal instruments have provided the inspiration for numerous WTO obligations while the rights and obligations under the covered agreements are frequently incorporated into the legal systems of the Membership. The WTO is home to numerous committees and working groups that also engage with other international bodies and their domestic counterparts. Transnational actors seek to take advantage of these networks, encouraging WTO law to develop in their favour. The interactions involved, however, are highly complex and unpredictable. By drawing on different models of causal explanation, it is possible to offer a perspective on the development of WTO law that accepts its role as part of a larger globalized process. Three different causal influences are identified: instrumental, systemic and constitutive. Together, they offer a prism through which to examine the development of WTO law as it responds to the behaviour of transnational actors, bridging gaps between international relations and law and, it is hoped, offering a convincing explanatory rationale for the way in which WTO law develops.

Katarína Jakabová Abstract ABSTRACT Procedural aspects of the dispute settlement in international economic law The dispute settlement in the international economic law of nowadays takes place under more institutionalized mechanism as in the past half-century. The aim is clear: better enforceability of the law (of the award) based on the fast and efficient "under one roof" procedure. This thesis focuses on the procedural aspects of the dispute settlement within the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Each of these three organizations has its own special dispute settlement procedure, which is above all distinctive from the international trade law by having at least one (member) state as a party to a dispute. I have chosen WTO because it regulates the disputes on a state-state level arising from all the WTO agreements between all WTO members, which makes it the biggest (and very effective, let's admit) dispute settling platform worldwide. ICSID is the first and most popular mixed arbitration allowing a non-state party (an investor) to be a party to a dispute. And finally, NAFTA, even if it is on a substantial level complementing the WTO agreements, represents their competitive version on the...

The number of investor-state arbitration disputes has been on the rise since the mid 1990s. Their determinants are still not fully understood. This study empirically examines the effects of economic crises on investor-state arbitration claims, based on international investment agreements (IIAs). We use a unique dataset containing 961 investor-state arbitration claims covering 132 host (defendant) and 75 home (claimant) countries over the 1986-2017 period. We find that episodes of economic crises are positively and significantly associated with the number of investor-state arbitration cases and we uncover evidence that the type of economic crisis matters. In addition, the positive impact of economic crises on arbitration cases is inversely related to the rule of law in a host country. These results are consistent with the view that governments are prioritizing policy actions aiming at mitigating the negative impact of economic crises over compliance with their obligations in IIAs. From a policy perspective, our results suggest that besides strengthening the rule of law domestically, the IIA system should be reformed with a focus on avoiding a vicious circle, thus shortening the recovery period after economic crises. / Series: Department of Economics Working Paper Series

O objetivo do trabalho é estudar as situações em que práticas de distribuição tendentes à exclusão podem configurar ilícitos de abuso de posição dominante por parte de fornecedores de bens e serviços. Fornecedores de bens e serviços precisam identificar qual a forma mais eficiente de fazer que seus produtos cheguem até o consumidor final. Em determinadas circunstâncias, contudo, um fornecedor pode ocupar uma posição de domínio em determinados mercados e suas práticas de distribuição podem ter potenciais efeitos de exclusão, possivelmente causando efeitos indesejáveis sobre a concorrência. Ao longo do trabalho, buscamos contextualizar e compreender a ideia de exclusão, com recurso à análise do tratamento dado às condutas de exclusão por parte do direito antitruste dos Estados Unidos, do direito da concorrência comunitário europeu e do direito da concorrência brasileiro. Buscamos, ainda, traçar um panorama das principais linhas da teoria econômica que oferecem subsídios à compreensão da ideia de exclusão, bem como as contribuições específicas com referência ao tema. Examinamos, também, as principais práticas de distribuição tendentes à exclusão, que classificamos em tradicionais e não tradicionais, buscando compreender seus efeitos e motivações. Ao final, apresenta-se um diagnóstico e a conclusão. O tratamento das práticas de distribuição tendentes à exclusão deve encontrar um equilíbrio entre, de um lado, a repressão adequada dos abusos de posição dominante envolvendo relações de distribuição e, de outro, a preservação do incentivo para que fornecedores adotem formas eficientes, inovadoras e concorrenciais de estruturar seus sistemas de distribuição / The work seeks to examine situations in which distribution practices tending towards exclusion may characterize illicit acts of abuse of a dominant position by suppliers of goods and services. Suppliers of goods and services need to identify the most efficient way of getting their products to the end user. In certain circumstances, though, a supplier may occupy a dominant position in given markets, and its distribution practices may have effects of exclusion, possibly affecting competition unfavorably. Throughout the work, we attempt to contextualize and understand the idea of exclusion, using an analysis of the treatment given to exclusionary conducts under United States antitrust law, the competition law of the European community and Brazilian competition law. We also seek to sketch out an overview of the main lines of economic theory that assist in an understanding of the idea of exclusion, along with specific contributions making reference to the issue. We also examine the main distribution practices tending towards exclusion, which we classify into traditional and non-traditional, seeking to understand their effects and rationale. Lastly, a diagnosis and conclusion are presented. The treatment of distribution practices with a trend towards exclusion must strike a balance between, on the one hand, proper repression of abuses of a dominant position involving distribution relations and, on the other, the preservation of an incentive for suppliers to adopt efficient, innovative and competitive ways of structuring their distribution systems.

A presente investigação visa a descrever as balizas constitucionais e legais da aferição da responsabilidade civil do Estado por formulações de política econômica. Para tanto, utilizando os métodos próprios do Direito Econômico, procurar-se-á extrair da vigente Constituição da República as principais diretrizes a serem seguidas pelo Estado brasileiro no campo econômico, a fim de esclarecer os limites de sua atuação e destacar quando uma política pode causar danos indenizáveis a particulares, seja por sua ilicitude, seja por demandar sacrifício especial de determinados sujeitos. Nesse contexto, as atuais concepções sobre o instituto da responsabilidade civil serão utilizadas para conformar a disciplina das pretensões reparatórias formuladas contra o Poder Público por atuar nessa seara. A partir de casos apresentados ao Poder Judiciário nacional, relativos aos últimos planos econômicos levados a cabo no período da redemocratização brasileira, buscar-se-á analisar a eficácia da tutela jurisdicional para frear abusos da política econômica, bem como a juridicidade de tais decisões. Por fim, à luz dos referidos casos e da doutrina nacional, serão propostos alguns indicadores para a análise da responsabilidade estatal por danos causados por suas políticas econômicas, sintetizados nos critérios da extraordinariedade da medida, da ilicitude ou do especial sacrifício individual, da decorrência direta da medida, e do prejuízo concreto e identificado. / The present research aims to define the constitutional and legal balances of civil responsibility of the State by formulations of economic policy. To do so, using the methods of Economic Law, it will be sought to extract from the current Federal Constitution the guidelines to be followed by the Brazilian State as a whole in the economic field, in order to clarify the limits of its performance and, from this, present the situations when a policy can cause damages to individuals, either for its illegality, or for demanding special sacrifice of certain individuals. The current views about the institute of liability are going to be used to conform the discipline of reparatory pretensions formulated against the State. Based on cases presented to the national courts, related to the latest economic plans carried out during the period of Brazilian redemocratization, an analysis the effectiveness of judicial protection to curb abuses of economic policy is going to be made. We will also going to analyze the legality of such decisions. At last, based on these cases and the national doctrine, some indicators will be proposed for the analysis of state responsibility for damages caused by its economic policies, synthesized in the criteria of extraordinariness of measure, unlawfulness or special individual sacrifice, direct consequence of the measure, and the actual and identified loss.

O Brasil possui posição privilegiada diante da Crise dos Alimentos: pode se tornar o maior exportador agrícola mundial, é reconhecido por suas políticas de Segurança Alimentar e possui vantagens estratégicas em termos de matriz energética. No entanto, essa posição é ameaçada por um ponto de estrangulamento no setor de fertilizantes. A contribuição do Direito para a superação deste gargalo é o tema desta tese. Defende-se que esse quadro decorre, em parte, da desorganização das ferramentas de jurídicas, que, ao longo da história, contribuíram positivamente para o desenvolvimento do setor. A reversão desse gargalo, portanto, exige a reorganização do ambiente institucional da indústria, por meio de ferramentas jurídicas de planejamento (III Plano Nacional de Fertilizantes), financiamento (investimento de Capital de Risco para o desenvolvimento de inovações tecnológicas sustentáveis) e regulação (reforma da legislação mineral). Assim, o Direito Econômico pode informar uma intervenção indutiva transformadora/pró-ativa, contribuindo para a superação do ponto de estrangulamento no setor de fertilizantes e para que o país aproveite as oportunidades geradas pela Crise dos Alimentos. / Brazil is in a leading position in the light of the Food Crisis: it may become the largest agricultural exporter in the world, is well renowned for its Food Safety policies, and also has strategic advantages in terms of its energy matrix. However, this position is now in jeopardy, due to a bottleneck in the fertilizer area. The contribution of Law to overcome this bottleneck is the theme addressed in this thesis. This work defends the idea that this situation is, in part, a result of the disorganization of the judicial tools that, throughout the countrys history, have made a positive contribution to the development of this segment. Hence, the reversal of this bottleneck situation may not do without a reorganization of the institutional environment, through judicial tools for planning (the 3rd National Fertilizer Plan), financing (investment of venture capital for the development of sustainable technological innovations) and also regulation (a rethink of legislation regarding minerals). In this way, Economic Law can inform a transforming or proactive inductive intervention, thereby helping towards the overcoming of the bottleneck in the fertilizer segment and also so that the country may take advantage of the opportunities generated by the Food Crisis.

A presente investigação visa a descrever as balizas constitucionais e legais da aferição da responsabilidade civil do Estado por formulações de política econômica. Para tanto, utilizando os métodos próprios do Direito Econômico, procurar-se-á extrair da vigente Constituição da República as principais diretrizes a serem seguidas pelo Estado brasileiro no campo econômico, a fim de esclarecer os limites de sua atuação e destacar quando uma política pode causar danos indenizáveis a particulares, seja por sua ilicitude, seja por demandar sacrifício especial de determinados sujeitos. Nesse contexto, as atuais concepções sobre o instituto da responsabilidade civil serão utilizadas para conformar a disciplina das pretensões reparatórias formuladas contra o Poder Público por atuar nessa seara. A partir de casos apresentados ao Poder Judiciário nacional, relativos aos últimos planos econômicos levados a cabo no período da redemocratização brasileira, buscar-se-á analisar a eficácia da tutela jurisdicional para frear abusos da política econômica, bem como a juridicidade de tais decisões. Por fim, à luz dos referidos casos e da doutrina nacional, serão propostos alguns indicadores para a análise da responsabilidade estatal por danos causados por suas políticas econômicas, sintetizados nos critérios da extraordinariedade da medida, da ilicitude ou do especial sacrifício individual, da decorrência direta da medida, e do prejuízo concreto e identificado. / The present research aims to define the constitutional and legal balances of civil responsibility of the State by formulations of economic policy. To do so, using the methods of Economic Law, it will be sought to extract from the current Federal Constitution the guidelines to be followed by the Brazilian State as a whole in the economic field, in order to clarify the limits of its performance and, from this, present the situations when a policy can cause damages to individuals, either for its illegality, or for demanding special sacrifice of certain individuals. The current views about the institute of liability are going to be used to conform the discipline of reparatory pretensions formulated against the State. Based on cases presented to the national courts, related to the latest economic plans carried out during the period of Brazilian redemocratization, an analysis the effectiveness of judicial protection to curb abuses of economic policy is going to be made. We will also going to analyze the legality of such decisions. At last, based on these cases and the national doctrine, some indicators will be proposed for the analysis of state responsibility for damages caused by its economic policies, synthesized in the criteria of extraordinariness of measure, unlawfulness or special individual sacrifice, direct consequence of the measure, and the actual and identified loss.