Um kulturelle Werte von Landschaft in Landschaftsplanungen stärker zu berücksichtigen wurden sie in dieser Arbeit als kulturelle Landschaftsfunktionen bestimmt, die sich in ein System aus Landschaftsfunktionen einordnen, wie es Landschaftsplanungen insgesamt zugrunde liegen kann. Neben bereits ausdifferenzierten naturhaushalterischen Landschaftsfunktionen umfasst es damit folgende kulturelle Landschaftsfunktionen: - bedeutungstragende und sinnstiftende Funktion - Handlungsfunktion - ästhetische und stimmungsstiftende Funktion - Kommunikationsfunktion - Wissensfunktion - Kontinuitätsfunktion - Gestaltungs- und Ausdrucksfunktion - Ordnungs- und Orientierungsfunktion Ihnen sind jeweils Teilfunktionen zugeordnet. Die kulturellen Funktionen stehen in einem hierarchischen Verhältnis zueinander. Übergeordnete kulturelle Funktionen sind die bedeutungstragende und sinnstiftende sowie die Handlungsfunktion. Die Funktionen können sich wechselseitig bedingen oder in Konkurrenz zueinander stehen. Nachdem Werte nicht aus der Landschaft, sondern nur aus der Gesellschaft bestimmt werden können, bildete die Untersuchung der gesellschaftlichen Konzepte hinter den zentralen Begriffen „Werte“, „Raum und Landschaft“ sowie „Kultur“ eine Grundlage zu ihrer Bestimmung. Ein Schwerpunkt lag auf der Auswertung sozialwissenschaftlicher Theorien. Dabei wurde auch ein auf Planungstauglichkeit angelegtes Verständnis der zentralen Begriffe dieser Arbeit geschaffen. Gewählt wurde ein utilitaristischer und zweckrationaler Zugang zu Werten, ein anthropologischer Zugang zu Kultur und ein konstitutions- und handlungstheoretischer Zugang zu Raum und Landschaft; Landschaft wird als Spezifikation von Raum verstanden. Die andere Grundlage zur Bestimmung kultureller Werte bildete die Untersuchung von Entwicklungstrends, von sozialempirischen Untersuchungen sowie eine Untersuchung prosaischer Darstellungen. An die Ausprägung der kulturellen Funktionen sowie von Raum und Landschaft insgesamt wurden im Ergebnis der Untersuchungen Anforderungen in Form von Hypothesen formuliert, die den Zugang zu Raum und Landschaft weiter erklären. Sie haben den Charakter von Prinzipien, insofern Präferenzen in hohem Maße gebietsspezifisch sind. In der Planung gängige Wertmaßstäbe und Urteile werden damit zum Teil in Frage stellt, so die Hypothese eines ästhetisierenden Zugangs zu Landschaft. Andere werden spezifischer gefasst, so die Rolle von Elementen für die Konstitution oder die Rolle von Wissen und von Natürlichkeit für das Schönheitserleben einer Landschaft. Einige zentrale Hypothesen, die Anlass für diese Arbeit waren bzw. die aus dem theoretischen Teil der Untersuchung entwickelt wurden, konnten im sozialempirischen Teil nicht bestätigt werden. Dies gilt maßgeblich für die Zukunftsperspektive, die Landschaft enthält, die jedoch im Regelfall nicht gefragt ist. Wertgebend ist landschaftliche Kontinuität, die Geschichten erzählt, indem sie die Vergangenheit aufzeigt und Erinnerungen manifest macht. Nicht vollständig aufrecht erhalten werden konnte die im theoretischen Teil der Arbeit aufgebaute Hypothese, dass Landschaftsplanungen stärker gruppenspezifisch anzulegen sind. Verbleibt hier eine Überprüfung des Milieukonzepts auf landschaftsspezifische Fragestellungen, so zeigt sich andererseits relativ klar, dass Landschaft eher für das gruppenübergreifend Geteilte steht. Sie ist nicht Gegenstand eines Luxusgeschmacks, sondern Gemeingut. Klarer zu unterscheiden sind jedoch die Erwartungshaltungen aufgrund der Perspektive als Einheimischer oder Tourist. Für die Planung bedeutet das eine deutlichere Unterscheidung zwischen der Definition der landschaftlichen Eigenart und eines landschaftlichen Images. Beide können für die Konstruktion eines Leitbildes Maßstäbe setzten, wobei ein eigenartbasiertes Leitbild eher den Ansprüchen einer gemeinwohlorientierten Planung genügt, ein Image eher auch einem Bedürfnis nach Inszenierung nachkommt. Landschaftsplanungen sind darin zu stärken, produktiven Landnutzungen ein Landschaftsnutzungsinteresse gegenüberzustellen, das zumeist nichtproduktiver und immaterieller Art ist. Dieses Landschafts-nutzungsinteresse ist über die kulturellen Landschaftsfunktionen abgebildet. In Landschaftsplanungen sollten sie entsprechend differenziert betrachtet werden, um die unmittelbaren gesellschaftlichen Anforderungen an Landschaft umfänglich aufzubereiten und zur Verhandlung zu stellen. Sie materiellen klar benennbaren Interessen allein als Komplexparameter und übergreifende emotionale Bedeutungszuschreibungen gegenüber zu stellen, stärkt ihre Verhandlungsposition nicht. Gerade auch im Zuge eines zunehmenden Landnutzungsdrucks ist dies notwendig. Zu sondieren, welche Rolle einer jeden der kulturellen Funktionen für die künftige Entwicklung einer Landschaft zukommt, sollte darüber hinaus Bestandteil eines Planungsprozesses werden, insofern gerade auch dienende Funktionen für die Ausjustierung der Richtung der weiteren Entwicklung notwendig sind, die sich ansonsten schnell auf Fortschreibungen der Vergangenheit anhand einer expertenbasierten Vorstellung von der Eigenart einer Landschaft nach romantischem Ideal beschränken kann. Im Gegenzug wären auch die Landnutzungsinteressen einer gesellschaftlichen Aushandlung der Inanspruchnahme des Gemeinguts Landschaft besser zugänglich zu machen, indem sie beispielsweise fachplanerisch ebenso raumspezifisch und umfassend aufbereitet und der abwägenden Gesamtplanung zugänglich gemacht werden. Als Forderung betrifft das vor allen die Landwirtschaft. Einen konzeptionellen Anschluss finden die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit im Konzept der Ökosystemdienstleistungen. Es eröffnet den Zugang zu einer stärkeren Integration ökonomischer und insbesondere sozialempirischer Methoden in Landschaftsplanungen. Zur methodischen Stärkung von Landschafsplanungen, insbesondere für die raumspezifische Integration der gesellschaftlichen Aspekte, die es im Zusammenhang mit kulturellen Werten von Landschaft in Landschaftsplanungen stärker zu berücksichtigen gilt, wird darin in Ergänzung zu nutzerunabhängigen Methoden und explizit über partizipative Methoden hinaus ein großes Potenzial gesehen. Gefragt ist also ein Methodenmix, der sich auch vor dem Hintergrund einer inkonsistenten theoretischen Basis weniger an theoretischer Stringenz orientieren kann. Der interdisziplinäre Anspruch an Landschaftsplanungen steigt damit. Er kann sich im Ergebnis z. B. in einer Verräumlichung sozialer Dimensionen und der beschreibenden Erfassung der expliziten und impliziten Dimension landschaftlicher Werte beispielsweise in Storylines äußern. Einer stringenten Erfassung landschaftlicher Funktionen auch in ihrer kulturellen Dimension und einer methodischen Weiterentwicklung unbenommen bleibt es originäre planerische Herausforderung in jedem Einzelfall, mit dem Nichtfaktischen umzugehen. Eine Leitbildentwicklung unter diesen Vorzeichen kann erheblich von der Anwendung von Szenarien profitieren. Szenarien können auch den gesellschaftlichen Diskurs über die angestrebte Entwicklung unter Anerkennung der Variabilität, die Eigenart als zentraler planerischer Wertmaßstab innewohnt, stärken. In der Konsequenz können diese Ansätze zu einer Demokratisierung einer Landschaftsplanung beitragen, die stärker auf die Handlungs- und Lebensrealität der Menschen ausgerichtet und stärker als Aushandlungsinstanz über Verfügungsrechte verstanden werden sollte.

The Service Path Attribution Network (SPAN) framework provides a novel, user-centric, connectivity-based approach to ecosystem service assessment and valuation (ESAV). Ecosystem services are delivered to users through the simulated flow of some service medium (i.e., matter, energy, or information) from the ecosystems in which it originates (sources) to the people or assets which it affects (users). Along the way, the service medium may be absorbed by intervening landscape features (sinks) or captured by rival users. Crucially, the service medium is not itself an ecosystem service or benefit but rather an agnostic transport mechanism which establishes connectivity between sources, sinks, rival users, and nonrival users within a delimited study region. Each user then receives benefits or harm from the encountered service medium depending on their specific relationship with it. For example, if surface water is the simulated service medium, it may increase productivity at a hydropower plant but damage farmers in floodplains by drowning their crops. In the SPAN terminology, sources provide provisioning ecosystem services to users with a beneficial relationship with the service medium. Similarly, sinks provide preventive ecosystem services to users with a detrimental relationship with the service medium by reducing the amount flowing to their locations. Notably, within a single SPAN analysis, both sources and sinks may provide ecosystem services given a sufficiently heterogeneous pool of users. The results of a SPAN ESAV analysis are myriad, totalling up to 30 output maps for some services. Taken together, these maps tell the story of which sources provide services to which users, which sinks protect users from harm, which users compete for the same resources (and who wins), and how all of the sources, sinks, rival users, and nonrival users affect one another. Additionally, a SPAN simulation produces maps of the flow paths taken by the service medium from sources to users as well as where and by how much the flow strength is reduced by sinks. Studying these flow paths can help decision makers identify those locations at which management actions would be maximized or minimized depending on their specific development goals. A crowning achievement of this work is that for most ecosystem services the SPAN algorithm's complexity is guaranteed to be linear O(n) in both time and space with respect to the number of discrete locations analyzed. This makes it a viable option for high resolution landscape level ESAV studies using no more than commodity hardware. This dissertation explores the SPAN framework in depth, from its novel conceptual terminology and computational algorithms through to the intended interpretation of its results. In addition to describing the conceptual and mathematical components of this system in detail, this work also provides a complete Literate Program demonstrating the application of the SPAN framework to an assessment of the scenic beauty ecosystem service in Chittenden County, Vermont.

En Afrique Sub-Saharienne, les zones humides forment d'importantes zones de pâturages pour bon nombre de pastoralistes. Le régime d'inondation de ces plaines influence leur fonc tionnement et leur productivité. Pour comprendre et maitriser ces régimes, il est donc essentiel d'évaluer l'impact de l'infrastructure hydro-électrique sur les dynamiques d'inondations en aval des barrages. Pourtant, le manque de données disponibles, l'absence de modèles validés et la forte variabilité environnementale rendent cet exercice difficile. Cette thèse contribue à quantifier l'impact du changement des ressources hydriques sur la productivité fourragère des prairies inondables dans le Delta du fleuve Tana, au Kenya. 1/ Les caractéristiques de croissance et la productivité d'une prairie inondable à Echinochloa stagnina (Retz) P. Beauv. ont été déterminées pour différents régimes de fauche, d'irrigation et conditions d'inondations. Ensuite, un modèle de croissance adapté à des Graminées en C4, tropicales et pérennes, de prairies inondables a été développé. Il constitue, à notre connaissance, le premier modèle éco-physiologique adapté à ce type de prairies. 2/ Des processus hydrologiques importants pour le fonctionnement des écosystèmes (étendue, période, durée et fréquence d'inondation) ont été caractérisés grâce à un modèle de bilan hydrologique et à l'utilisation de techniques de télédétection, et cela en dépit de la faible instrumentalisation du bassin, du peu de données topographiques et d'un fort couvert nuageux. 3/ Une analyse préliminaire de l'impact de différents scénarios d'inondations sur la production fourragère a été effectuée en utilisant des indicateurs de services écosystémiques. Cette thèse participe à l'amélioration de nos connaissances des services écosystémiques des zones humides par la construction de modèles et par l'évaluation de scénarios dans une région du monde où ce type de données est rare. / Wetlands are a vital resource for many pastoralists in Sub-Saharan Africa as they provide dry-season grazing zones. As floods are essential for wetland ecosystems, the assessment of water abstraction and hydroelectric infrastructure on downstream flooding dynamics is crucial. Yet, scarce data, environmental variability and the lack of models make this challenging. This research contributes to quantifying the influence of changing water resources on fodder pro- duction of floodplain grasslands in the Tana River Delta, Kenya. 1/ Growth characteristics of floodplain grasslands of Echinochloa stagnina (Retz) P. Beauv. for different flood and manage- ment options were determined and a quantification of their productivity achieved. This kind of data is scarce for floodplain grasslands. A plant growth model adapted to tropical floodplain conditions and perennial C4 grasses was developed, and is the first known physiologically based model for floodplain grasslands. 2/ Hydrological processes of ecological importance (flood extent, timing, duration, frequency) were characterized in a poorly gauged basin using a water-balance model combined with remote-sensing techniques, despite precise knowledge of discharge rates, topography and a high cloud cover. 3/ A preliminary analysis explored different flooding scenarios and their impact on fodder production through the use of simple ecosystem service indicators. This PhD contributes to the repertoire of wetland ecosystem ser- vices by building biophysically based simulation models and exploring possible scenarios in a region of the world and an ecosystem where these type of evaluations are rare.

En agriculture de conservation (AC), les résidus de cultures sous forme de paillis à la surface du sol associés à la suppression du travail du sol sont une composante intrinsèque des systèmes de culture. L'objectif principal de ce travail était de comprendre les effets de la nature et de la décomposition de mulch de résidus s sur les services d'approvisionnement et de régulation fournis par les sols dans les agrosystèmes en AC de régions tempérées (France) et tropicales (Madagascar et le Brésil). Des études expérimentales ont été réalisées pour obtenir des paramètres de décomposition pour une large gamme représentative de la qualité des résidus végétaux des agrosystèmes étudiés et pour tester et améliorer un modèle de décomposition des mulchs. Ensuite nous avons utilisé le modèle PASTIS_MULCH qui simule les biotransformations C et N et le transport de solutés dans les sols lors de la décomposition des mulchs.Pour la gamme de résidus de tiges testées, la rétention d'eau maximale a varié considérablement et ceci a été expliqué par les caractéristiques physiques du résidu. Avec les données obtenues par une série d'incubations de décomposition de résidus, nous avons proposé un ensemble de paramètres biologiques unique pour le module de décomposition CANTIS, simulant une large gamme de qualité des résidus de culture. L'étude expérimentale dans les colonnes de sol a montré que le mulch de maïs + dolique se décompose plus rapidement que mulch de blé + luzerne. Un régime de pluies fines et fréquentes augmente la décomposition du mulch par rapport à des pluies plus rares et plus fortes et cela est dû au maintien de l'humidité du mulch.Les simulations de scénarios avec PASTIS_MULCH ont montré que la pluie et les conditions d'évaporation classent les résidus de culture vis-à-vis de la décomposition lorsque ceux-ci sont placés en mulch à la surface des sols, tandis que les caractéristiques chimiques des résidus classent ceux-ci vis-à-vis de la décomposition lorsqu'ils sont incorporés. Aucune des situations étudiées pourrait être définie au vu des résultats de simulation comme étant adaptée à toutes les conditions pédo-climatiques et agricoles. / In conservation agriculture (CA), crop residues mulches are associated to reduction or suppression of soil tillage and are an intrinsic component of CA. The objective of this work was to understand the effects of nature and decomposition of crop residue mulches on the provisioning and regulating services of agrosystems provided by soils under temperate (France) and tropical (Madagascar and Brazil) conditions. Experimental studies were realized to get decomposition parameters for a large range of residue quality representative of the agrosystems studied and to test and improve a MULCH model. Then we used PASTIS_MULCH model which simulates the C and N biotransformations and solutes transport in soils during mulch decomposition.For a range of plant-stem residues tested, the maximal water retention varied greatly and was only explained by the physical features of the residue. With a series of decomposition incubations, we proposed a single set of biological parameters for CANTIS decomposition module, simulating a large range of crop residue quality. Experimental study in soil columns showed that maize+dolichos mulch decomposed faster than wheat+alfalfa mulch. Frequent and light rain enhanced mulch decomposition compared to infrequent and heavy rain and this was due to the mulch remaining wetter with frequent rain.The simulations of scenarios with PASTIS showed that rain and evaporation conditions ranked crop residues decomposition when placed as mulches while the residue chemical characteristics ranked crop residues decomposition when incorporated. None of the situations studied would be defined as suitable in all pedo-climatic and agricultural conditions.

Master of Science / Department of Agricultural Economics / Timothy J. Dalton / Given the changing climate paradigm, food and poverty are likely to become more severe in Africa. Farmers can adapt to climate change, especially through conservation agriculture. This study relies on a minimum data approach developed by Antle and Valvidia (2006) to estimate the spatial distribution of opportunity cost for farmers in switching to conservation practices in Wa, Ghana. It assesses the economic feasibility of several scenarios that rely on production techniques currently studied by the CRSP SANREM project. We also explore the possibility that these practices can provide income from carbon sequestration payments implemented by the Kyoto protocol’s Clean Development Mechanisms. The methodology uses data from both a recent survey and information from secondary sources to assess simulated management practices. Results indicate that all the simulated management practices would theoretically benefit farmers. In fact, adoption rates for the four scenarios range from 52% to 65%, even without any carbon payment. Adding a proportional payment to the amount of carbon sequestered with these practices does not seem enough to influence farmers switch to switch to alternative scenarios. The analysis shows that these results hold even when additional fixed costs to adopt these practices are included. This case study demonstrates the usefulness of the minimum data approach in estimating the economic potential of conservation practices in Ghana. These production techniques may represent environmentally-friendly alternatives that are more profitable for farmers than current practices. The next step in assessing implementation of such practices would require studying farmers’ willingness to adopt these production systems, given their ex-ante economic returns.

The predominant land use in Denmark is agriculture, which has had negative effects on the aquatic environment, bothmarine and freshwater, due to excess nutrient runoff and resulting eutrophication. The current condition does not fullfillthe European Water Framework Directive’s goal of ‘Good ecological condition’ in all aquatic environments. InDenmark, forests only account for a small proportion of the land use, and despite an increase over the past twocenturies, the currently small forested area has had negative consequences for biodiversity since a majority of thespecies in Denmark are dependent on forests for habitat. The current efforts do not meet Denmark’s commitment tofulfill the United Nations Convention on Biological diversity. Similar to other countries, Denmark is obligated to reduceits carbon dioxide emissions according to the Paris agreement, with reduction goals of 40 % in 2030 and 80-95% in2050. The aim of the present thesis, is to assess whether reforestation on agricultural land can ensure that Denmarkreaches the international obligations for water quality and biodiversity at the same time as reducing climate impact byincreasing carbon sequestration, without significant land use conflict between agriculture and forest.This aim is pursued through an analysis of spatial data using a Geographical Information System, where threescenarios are created to assess differences in policy priorities.Based on the result of the spatial analysis, carbon sequestration estimates are calculated to assess the extent towhich forests could contribute to reducing the Danish climate impact, by increasing carbon sequestration. Theparameters used in the spatial analysis were found through a literature review, and the data for the spatial analysis wereaccessed in official and university databases.The main findings of the spatial analysis suggest that the areas with the highest potential agricultural value andthe areas with the highest potential for forest ecosystem services are not overlapping to a significant degree. Thisimplies that the areas that would have the highest levels of trade-offs between these goals when transitioning to forest,can continue the current land use without being needed for reforestation. The areas where agricultural value is low, andwhere reforestation would provide high levels of forest ecosystem services, are best suited for land use change. Theseareas were found to cover a substantial part of the study area, varying depending on three different scenarios, and areestimated to have the potential to contribute greatly to Denmark’s international commitments for water quality andbiodiversity. The carbon sequestration estimates show that if an area of approximately 7 % of Zealand was reforested,the sequestered amounts of carbon dioxide would correspond to a large portion of the emissions reductions necessary tofulfill Denmark’s obligations in the Paris Agreement.

Due to an increasing global population and changes in diets the impact of food consumption on the world’s ecosystems and their services has become more significant. The purpose of this project has been to investigate how the impact on ecosystem services from Swedish food consumption has changed over time and if this development is sustainable or not. A quantitative assessment of six different environmental impact factors has been carried out for each food category. The project clarifies how Swedish food consumption has developed since the 1960s, the origin of the food that has been consumed, which processes that affect the environment as well as the consequences from these impacts. The result showed that Swedish food consumption has increased considering quantity, that the consumption pattern has changed, and that the import of goods has increased since the 1960s. The average Swede eats more animal-based products such as meat, cheese and cream, along with more vegetable-based products such as fruit and berries, and vegetables. Instead, products such as milk and soured based products has decreased, while products made from flour and grains has stayed unchanged. The project shows that animal-based products, especially from ruminant animals, has a significantly higher ecological footprint in comparison with vegetable-based products, concerning most of the categories mentioned above. Considering that the swedes eat more animal-based products today than in the 1960sthefollowing conclusion, that the Swedish impact on ecosystem services has increased since the 1960s even though food production has become more efficient, could be drawn.

Unravelling the psychological processes determining landowners\' support towards forest conservation is key, particularly, in developing countries, where most forest remnants are within private lands. As human-nature connections are known to shape pro-environmental behaviors, the intention of preserving forest remnants should be ultimately determined by the ecological context people live in. Here, we investigate the pathways through which the ecological context (forest cover), via experiences with nature (contact, uses and losses associated with forests), influences the psychological determinants of conservation behavior (beliefs, attitude and intention towards preserving forest remnants). We conceptualized a model based on the Reasoned Action Approach, using the ecological context and experiences with nature as background factors, and tested the model using Piecewise SEM. Data was collected through an interview-based protocol applied to 106 landowners across 13 landscapes varying in forest cover in a region in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Our results indicate that: (i) ecosystem services are more important than disservices for shaping intention of preserving forests, particularly those related to non-provisioning benefits; (ii) contact with forest has an indirect effect on intention, by positively influencing forest uses; (iii) people living in more forested ecological contexts have more experiences with nature, and ultimately stronger intention of preserving forests. Hence, our study suggests a dangerous positive feedback loop between deforestation and the extinction of human-nature connections. Local demands across the full range of ecosystem services, the balance between services and disservices, and the ecological context people live should be considered when developing conservation initiatives in rural areas / Desvendar os processos psicológicos que determinam o apoio dos proprietários de terras à conservação das florestas é fundamental, particularmente, nos países em desenvolvimento, onde a maioria dos remanescentes florestais se encontra em áreas privadas. Como as conexões humano-natureza são conhecidas por moldar comportamentos pró-ambientais, a intenção de preservar remanescentes florestais deve ser, em última instância, determinada pelo contexto ecológico no qual as pessoas vivem. Neste trabalho, investigamos os caminhos pelos quais o contexto ecológico (cobertura florestal), através das experiências com a natureza (contato, usos e perdas associados às florestas), influencia os determinantes psicológicos do comportamento de conservação (crenças, atitude e intenção de preservar remanescentes florestais). Formulamos um modelo baseado na Abordagem da Ação Racional, usando o contexto ecológico e as experiências com a natureza como fatores de base, e o testamos através da Piecewise SEM. Os dados foram coletados através de protocolo aplicado, por meio de entrevista, a 106 proprietários de terra em 13 paisagens que variam em cobertura florestal em uma região da Mata Atlântica. Nossos resultados indicam que: (i) serviços ecossistêmicos são mais importantes que desserviços para moldar a intenção de preservar florestas, particularmente outros serviços que não os de provisão; (ii) o contato com a floresta tem um efeito indireto sobre a intenção, influenciando positivamente os usos da floresta; (iii) as pessoas que vivem em contextos ecológicos mais florestados têm mais experiências com a natureza e, assim, uma intenção mais forte de preservar as florestas. Nosso estudo, portanto, sugere um perigoso ciclo de retroalimentação positiva entre o desmatamento e a extinção das conexões humano-natureza. As demandas locais considerando toda a gama de serviços ecossistêmicos, o balanço entre serviços e desserviços e o contexto ecológico no qual as pessoas vivem devem ser considerados ao se desenvolverem iniciativas de conservação em áreas rurais

As atividades antrópicas vêm continuamente influenciando as transformações no ordenamento do solo. A mineração, em suas fases de operação e desativação, é um dos maiores agentes de mudança do uso do solo e alteração da paisagem, o que, consequentemente, resulta em modificações na dinâmica das funções ecológicas, interferindo na oferta de serviços ecossistêmicos. Considerando a inclusão da abordagem dos serviços ecossistêmicos na avaliação ambiental de empreendimentos, a partir de um estudo de caso em uma mineração de rocha fosfática (apatita), localizada no município de Cajati - SP, o presente estudo teve como objetivo responder a seguinte questão: a atividade de mineração interfere na oferta local de serviços ecossistêmicos? Para isso, o método de análise utilizado foi fundamentado em um modelo de avaliação não monetária, com base nos padrões da atividade de mineração ao longo do tempo e do espaço, bem como na capacidade das diferentes classes de uso e ocupação do solo dessa atividade em fornecer serviços ecossistêmicos. O estudo concluiu que todos os serviços ecossistêmicos avaliados são afetados pelos impactos ambientais gerados pela atividade minerária, sendo que a alteração na extensão da área ocupada por floresta nativa - tanto redução quanto aumento - é o que mais influenciou no fornecimento de serviços ecossistêmicos potenciais. Além disso, a atividade minerária ao alterar o padrão de uso e ocupação do solo e, consequentemente, alterar as funções ecológicas locais, reduziu progressivamente a oferta de múltiplos serviços ecossistêmicos e, por outro lado, a recuperação das áreas degradadas pela atividade minerária, recobrindo o solo com espécies de gramíneas e promovendo o plantio de espécies arbóreas nativas, resultou no aumento da oferta local dos serviços ecossistêmicos potenciais. A partir destes resultados fica evidente a importância das ações de recuperação de áreas degradadas pela atividade minerária para o aumento da oferta de serviços ecossistêmicos. Dessa forma, recomendou-se inserir a análise de serviços ecossistêmicos na avaliação de impactos ambientais de empreendimentos minerários, visto que a ferramenta de avaliação baseada em serviços ecossistêmicos permite identificar conflitos e sinergias entre as atividades antrópicas e os ecossistemas, fornecendo subsídios para identificar medidas adicionais de mitigação de impactos e de compensação ambiental. / Human activities have continuously influenced changes in land management. Mining in its operational and decommissioning stages, is one of the biggest agents of change in the landscape and land use, which consequently results in changes in the dynamics of the ecological functions, interfering with the supply of ecosystem services. Taking into account the ecosystem services approach in environmental project assessments and based on a case study of a rock phosphate mining operation, located in the town of Cajati - SP, this study aimed to answer the following question: does the mining activity interfere in the local supply of ecosystem services? As such, the method of analysis was based on a framework of non-monetary assessment itself based on the established patterns of the mining activity over time and space, as well as the ability of different land uses to provide ecosystem services. The result of the study was that all the analyzed ecosystem services are affected by the environmental impacts of the mining activity, and that change in the extension of the native forest (as decrease as increase) is what most affects the potential supply of ecosystem services. Moreover, as the mining activity alters the pattern of land use and occupation and consequently alters the local ecological functions, it progressively reduces the provision of multiple ecosystem services. On the other hand, the recovery of degraded areas by mining activities, covering the soil with grass species and promoting the planting of native species, allowed for the growth of the local supply of potential ecosystem services. From these results, the importance of area recovery actions is evident in increasing the supply of ecosystem services. Thus, the inclusion of the analysis of ecosystem services in the environmental impact assessment of projects is recomended, as the assessment tool based on ecosystem services allows us to identify synergies and conflicts between human activities and ecosystems, providing input to identify additional actions for impact mitigation and environmental compensation.

Na atualidade, os serviços ambientais podem ser descritos como as atividades antrópicas que auxiliam no aumento dos benefícios ao meio ambiente, enquanto os serviços ecossistêmicos são processos ecossistêmicos capazes de fornecer sustentação à vida sendo dois temas mundialmente pesquisados. Neste sentido o pagamento por práticas que forneçam a melhoria da qualidade ambiental conhecidas como pagamento por serviços ambientais (PSA) têm surgido e avançado no Brasil nos últimos anos, embora ainda não possuam regulamentação legal específica. No primeiro capítulo procurou-se analisar os projetos de lei (PLs) em trâmite no Congresso Nacional PL 792/2007, PL 5.487/2009, Projeto de Lei do Senado (PLS) 276/2013 e PL 312/2015 com relação à adicionalidade, princípios do direito ambiental e teorias econômicas que regulamentam o PSA no Brasil. No segundo capítulo foi realizada a estimativa de serviços ecossistêmicos de biodiversidade de abelhas e carbono na região do Xingu na Amazônia brasileira, onde utilizou-se a equação alométrica para cálculo da biomassa e índices de diversidade para avaliar a diversidade de plantas e abelhas, e verificou-se a possível relação entre a diversidade de plantas e abelhas e o carbono estocado na vegetação para avaliar a relação dos serviços ecossistêmicos de carbono e biodiversidade na região. Esta dissertação apresenta um panorama sobre a legislação atual de PSA no Brasil e um estudo de caso de quantificação de adicionalidade ambiental provida pelos serviços ecossistêmicos de carbono e biodiversidade na área do Rio Xingu, no estado do Pará. Embora os estudos sobre serviços ecossistêmicos e as funções do ecossistema tenham surgido há muito tempo, pouco tem sido estudado sobre a adicionalidade ambiental destes serviços. Logo, como descrito no art. 5 do Paris Agreement da COP 21, as Partes são encorajadas a realizar pagamentos através de incentivos e políticas sobre redução de emissões de desmatamento e degradação florestal no papel da conservação na gestão sustentável das florestas, enquanto que na Contribuição Nacionalmente Determinada (INDC) o Brasil incluiu como uma das metas a implementação de atividades de REDD+ e pagamento por seus resultados representando possíveis avanços para o PSA em nível nacional e mundial. / Environmental services described as human activities that help to enhance the benefits to the environment and ecosystem services on ecosystem processes capable of providing support to life are two highly specific topics discussed on all the world. Payment for environmental services (PES) have emerged and advanced in Brazil in recent years, though it is still not regulated. In the first chapter we tried to analyze the Law\'s project (PL) in current analisys on National Brazilian Congress PL 792/2007, PL 5.487/2009, Federal Senate (PLS) PLS 276/2013 and 312/2015 regarding additionality principles of environmental law and economic theories involved in PLs. Although studies on ecosystem services and ecosystem functions, have arisen for over fifty years ago, few has been studied about the provision of these services together through environmental additionality. In the second chapter was held on ecosystem services and carbon estimate bee biodiversity in the Xingu endemic region of the Brazilian Amazon. For this we used the allometric equation for calculating the biomass and diversity index to evaluate the diversity of plants and bees, there had a relationship between the diversity of plants and bees and the carbon stocked in the vegetation to assess the relationship of ecosystem services of carbon and biodiversity in the region. Soon, as defined by the Art. 5 of the Paris Agreement of COP 21, Parties are encouraged to make payments through incentives and policies on reduction of deforestation and forest degradation emissions in the role of conservation in sustainable forest management while in INDC (Intended Nationally Determined Contribution), Brazil included as goals from other actions the implementation of REDD + activities and payment by results reprensenting major advances can be made to the PSA at the national and global levels. So this paper presents an overview of the current project legislation on PSE in Brazil and a case study to quantify environmental business as usual provided by the ecosystem service of carbon and biodiversity in the Xingu River area in the state of Pará as contemporary and integrated assessment on the topic involving environmental additionality.