People perceive the importance of ecosystem services in different ways, depending on their values, beliefs and needs. This study provides a nuanced understanding of the multiple ways stakeholder groups perceive the benefits derived from hydrologic services in the surrounding area of the "Gialova" coastal wetland in Messenia, Greece. The social-ecological system of this region depends on a steady flow of water-related ecosystem services and livelihoods are closely linked to agriculture and tourism. At the same time, these activities, along with climate change driven weather extremes, could affect regional water quality and availability. The objective of the study is to understand the stakeholders' key viewpoints on water-based ecosystem services (WES) and provide contextual information regarding the drivers affecting the identified WES. A "value pluralism" lens is applied to capture the multiple dimensions of values expressed by the participants of the study. The study's primary method is "Q-methodology", a participatory mixed-methods approach suitable for eliciting patterns of valuation that are held in common within a group. Thirty-two stakeholders participated in the study and the analysis highlighted five key perspectives, titled "Basic needs first", "Us vs. them", "Tradition and history", "Modern environmentalists" and "Ecocentric". The results indicate different perceptions of the importance of WES, alongside a range of multiple explanations of why the WES are important. The five perspectives were compared and they reflected divergent understandings of i) the nested nature of socio-ecological systems, ii) spatial perception of ecosystem services and, iii) trade-off between relational and instrumental values. The points of consensus and disagreement among the participants along with their perceptions of drivers of change, suggest promising leverage points for sustainable and inclusive water resource management. In addition, this empirical case study contributes methodological insights to the ecosystem services socio-cultural valuation body of literature.

Den ökade urbaniseringen och klimatförändringarna utgör några av de största utmaningarna vid utvecklingen av hållbara städer. Ekosystemtjänster som vatten- och temperaturreglering samt estetiska tjänster från träd kan bidra till att tackla utmaningar som extremväder och psykisk ohälsa. Gävle kommun har ett gediget hållbarhetsarbete men har inte genomfört någon egen undersökning över hur invånarna upplever de estetiska ekosystemtjänsterna från träd eller undersökt ekosystemtjänster från de vanligaste trädsläktena i staden. Med anledning av detta var syftet att sammanställa befintlig forskning rörande ekosystemtjänster från lind och tall i centrala Gävle samt ta fram egna data kring hur invånarna upplever stadsträd. Målet med studien var även att undersöka hur ekosystemtjänster från träd kan användas för att främja utvecklingen av mer hållbara städer. I denna fallstudie användes en blandad metod bestående av en litteraturöversikt och en webbaserad enkätstudie för att besvara forskningsfrågans olika delar. Litteraturstudien syftade till att undersöka hur lind respektive tall påverkar vattenreglering, temperaturreglering samt estetiska ekosystemtjänster och enkätstudien syftade till att undersöka hur invånarna i centrala Gävle upplever de estetiska värdena av stadsträd. Denna blandning av metoder valdes då de kompletterar varandra och ger en mer nyanserad bild av trädens roll i den hållbara staden. Litteraturöversikten visade att lindar har god förmåga att bidra till temperaturreglering samt gav en indikation att även tallar kan bidra till denna ekosystemtjänst men genom vissa andra egenskaper. Det fanns dock en avsaknad av forskning som fokuserar på lind och tall i relation till vattenreglering och estetiska tjänster i urbana miljöer. Överlag saknas mycket forskning om tall som stadsträd i relation till de valda ekosystemtjänsterna. Resultatet av enkätstudien visade att lövträd föredras framför barrträd i stadsmiljöer samt att blommor, bred trädkrona, färgstarka blad/barr och hög höjd är viktiga attribut för att ett träd ska upplevas som attraktivt. Utöver detta upplever många att träd är viktiga komponenter för välbefinnandet. Generellt sett bedöms det behövas mer artspecifik forskning gällande urbana träds ekosystemtjänster i de mer kalltempererade områdena där exempelvis tallar oftare förekommer som stadsträd. Vidare bör fler lokala undersökningar göras för att ta reda på hur invånarna upplever stadsträd och grönområden för att säkerställa att planeringen av dessa sker i enlighet med lokalbefolkningen preferenser. Slutligen bör nämnas att om utvecklingen av mer hållbara städer är ett mål som makthavarna avser uppnå måste mer fokus läggas på ekosystemtjänster från träd då de främjar mänskligt välbefinnande och långsiktigt resilienta samhällen. / Increased urbanization and climate change constitute some of the biggest challenges in the development of sustainable cities. Ecosystem services such as water and temperature regulation as well as aesthetic services from trees can help tackle challenges such as extreme weather and mental wellbeing. The municipality of Gävle has worked substantially with sustainability issues but has not conducted any survey of how residents experience the aesthetic ecosystem services from trees or examined ecosystem services from the most common trees in the city. Due to this, the purpose was to compile existing research concerning ecosystem services from linden and pine in central Gävle and research how the inhabitants experience urban trees. The aim of the study was also to investigate how ecosystem services from trees can be used to promote the development of more sustainable cities. In this case study, a mixed method consisting of a literature review and a web-based questionnaire was used. The literature review aimed to investigate how linden and pine affect water regulation, temperature regulation and aesthetic ecosystem services, and the survey study aimed to investigate how the inhabitants of central Gävle experience the aesthetic values of urban trees. This mix of methods was chosen as they complement each other and give a more nuanced picture of the role of trees in a sustainable city. The literature review showed that lindens can effectively contribute to temperature regulation and indicated that pines also have the ability to contribute to this ecosystem service, but through certain other properties. However, there was a lack of research focusing on linden and pine in relation to water regulation and aesthetic services in urban environments. In general, there is a lack of research on pine as an urban tree in relation to the selected ecosystem services. The results of the survey showed that deciduous trees are preferred over conifers in urban environments and that flowers, a broad tree crown, colorful leaves/conifers and height are important attributes for a tree to be perceived as attractive. In addition to this, many feel that trees are important components for their well-being. In conclusion more species-specific research is needed regarding ecosystem services of urban trees in the cold-tempered areas where, for example, pines more often occur as urban trees. Furthermore, more local surveys should be conducted to find out how residents experience urban trees and green areas to ensure planning of these spaces are in accordance with the preferences of the local population. Finally, it should be mentioned that if the development of more sustainable cities is going to be achieved, more focus must be placed on ecosystem services from trees as they promote human well-being and long-term resilient communities.

The overarching question that this thesis sheds some light on is whether making PES more equitable increases the likelihood that they will be successful. The findings of the three empirical chapters suggest that policy-makers would do well to keep equity consideration in mind when designing PES. The first of these chapters is based on the results of a survey of dozens of PES in Latin America. The second and third chapters use a deliberative choice experiments approach to measure participant preferences towards different equity design characteristics of PES in an indigenous community in Colombia, where one of these programs is likely to be implemented in the near future.

Les services écosystémiques (SE) sont définis comme les bénéfices que les humains retirent des écosystèmes. A titre illustratif, un arbre peut produire des fruits, séquestre du carbone et différentes activités récréatives ou valeurs esthétiques lui sont liées. Parmi les différentes approches d’évaluation des SE, la matrice de capacité est une méthode considérée comme flexible et rapide à mettre en œuvre. Constituée d’une table d’allocation d’un score pour chaque SE et chaque écosystème considéré, elle est de plus en plus utilisée en France, ainsi qu’à l’international. Dans le cadre de cette thèse nous avons travaillés sur l’évaluation des scores à dire d’experts dans le but, notamment, de déterminer certains biais et limites méthodologiques, mais également d’explorer des développements innovants pour différentes applications sur le Parc Naturel Région Scarpe-Escaut et la Région Hauts-de-France. Enfin nous avons intégré les disservices (les effets indésirables de la nature sur l’Homme) et l’intégrité écologique (la condition/santé de l’écosystème) dans l’évaluation des SE afin d’avoir une vision plus complète de la relation homme-nature / Ecosystem services (ES) are the benefits that humans derive from ecosystems. For example, a tree produces fruit that we pick, sequesters carbon as it grows, supports various recreational activities and has aesthetic value. Among the different approaches developed to assess ES, the experts-based capacity matrix is flexible and quick to implement. The matrix is a look-up table that assigns each ecosystem type a score defined by experts expressing its ES capacity. It is increasingly used in France, Europe and internationally. Three themes are addressed in the thesis: (i) methodological analysis to define and specify limits and specify methodology to address them, (ii) application of the method to the Scarpe-Escaut Regional Natural Park and to the Hauts-de-France Region, and (iii) integration of the evaluation of disservices (undesired effects of the natural environment on humans) and ecological integrity (condition/health of the ecosystem) into the evaluation of ES to take fuller account of the relation between humans and their natural environment.

Les services écosystémiques (SE) désignent les bénéfices fournis par les écosystèmes à la société. En France, la législation cherche à les intégrer dans les études d’impact environnemental avec la promulgation de la Loi pour la reconquête de la biodiversité, de la nature et des paysages (2016). Pour ce faire, il est nécessaire de développer des méthodes de terrain d’estimation des SE. C’est dans ce cadre qu’une collaboration entre le Laboratoire d’Ecologie Alpine et le bureau d’études EGIS Environnement a vu le jour, afin de répondre à la question : comment quantifier les SE à l’échelle locale ?Pour cela, nous avons étudié deux SE de régulation régulièrement évoqués dans le contexte du changement global. Le service de pollinisation est essentiel pour l’alimentation humaine et est au cœur de l’actualité de par les déclins des populations d’insectes pollinisateurs. Le SE de régulation du climat global par la séquestration de carbone par les écosystèmes est d’intérêt majeur en regard des changements climatiques récents et annoncés.Nous avons suivi les quatre étapes du développement d’un protocole. Premièrement, pour le SE de pollinisation entomophile qui possède de nombreuses définitions dans la littérature, nous avons établi par une revue bibliographique un cadre conceptuel afin de définir le SE de pollinisation et d’identifier les indicateurs et leurs méthodes de mesures. Nous avons choisi pour la suite d’adopter la définition du SE de pollinisation comme la capacité de l’écosystème à soutenir la pollinisation entomophile, i.e. la présence d’insectes pollinisateurs. Deuxièmement, nous avons abordé la question du choix des indicateurs pour l’estimation de ce SE. En effet, la capacité du SE de pollinisation peut être estimée par des indicateurs directs, liés à la présence des insectes pollinisateurs sur la parcelle, et des indicateurs indirects, liés aux ressources d’alimentation et de nidification sur la parcelle d’étude et dans le paysage. Nous avons comparé les mesures de ces deux types d’indicateurs estimés en vergers et en prairies. Les objectifs étaient de tester la cohérence entre ces deux types d’indicateurs pour le SE de pollinisation et la possibilité d’une simplification du protocole d’estimation en la basant uniquement sur des indicateurs indirects. Les indicateurs indirects n’expliquaient pas une part suffisante de la variabilité observée dans les mesures d’abondance et de richesse des pollinisateurs pour permettre simplification du protocole.Troisièmement, nous avons cherché à simplifier le protocole d’estimation du SE de la régulation du climat global par la mesure des stocks de carbone en prairies et en forêts. Pour cela, nous avons comparé les estimations obtenues par des protocoles simplifiés à celles obtenues par un protocole plus complet et mesuré les incertitudes causées par ces simplifications. Le protocole d’estimation a pu ainsi être simplifié pour les deux compartiments de l’écosystème stockant le plus de carbone : la biomasse aérienne en forêt et le carbone organique du sol. Enfin, afin de tester l’applicabilité du protocole simplifié d’estimation du SE de régulation du climat global, nous l’avons testé sur des parcelles de zones humides, des écosystèmes stockant une grande quantité de carbone. Ces parcelles ont été placées dans un modèle d’états-et-transitions afin de tester si les mesures de gestion peuvent affecter les stocks de carbone des zones humides. Les actions de gestion sur la biomasse aérienne changeaient les stocks de carbone entre les zones humides herbacées et forestières. Le stock de carbone organique du sol, stock majeur dans les zones humides, ne différait pas entre les différents états étudiés, reflétant la difficulté d’agir sur ce compartiment.Cette étude montre que le développement méthodologique pour la quantification de SE sur le terrain peut mener à des protocoles simples et fiables mais que le processus de développement est différent selon les SE abordés. / Ecosystem services are benefits supplied by ecosystem to human societies. In France, recent legislation aims to include ecosystem service in environmental impact studies with the enactment of the Law for the recovery of biodiversity, nature and landscapes (2016). To do so, it is necessary to develop field methods for ecosystem service estimation. In this setting, a collaboration was established between the Laboratoire d’Ecologie Alpine and the environmental consultancy EGIS Environnement to answer the following question: how can ecosystem services be quantified at local scale?We studied two ecosystem services often cited in the global change context. The pollination service is essential for human food production. Given worldwide pollinator declines it is at the centre of scientific, citizen and political concerns. The service of global climate regulation by carbon sequestration by ecosystems is of major interest given the recent and coming climate changes.We investigated four key steps for developing a field protocol. First, the ecosystem service of entomophilous pollination has numerous definitions in the scientific literature. Thus, based on a literature review we built a conceptual framework for defining the pollination service and identifying quantifiable indicators and their measurement methods. We chose to define the pollination service as the ecosystem capacity to support entomophilous pollination, i.e. pollinating insect presence. Second, we worked on indicator selection for the pollination service estimation. Pollination capacity can be estimated through direct indicators linked to pollinator presence on the plot and through indirect indicators linked to feeding and nesting resources in the plot and in the landscape. We compared measures of these two types of indicators within orchards and grasslands. Our aims were to test consistency between both indicator types for the pollination service and the possibility of protocol simplification based on indirect indicators. Indirect indicators did not explain enough of the observed variability in pollinator abundance and richness to allow a protocol simplification.Third, we tried to simplify the estimation protocol of the ecosystem service of global climate regulation from measures of carbon stocks in grasslands and forests. We compared estimations obtained by simplified protocols to estimations obtained by a more complete protocol. We also quantified the uncertainties caused by these simplifications. The estimation protocol could be simplified for the two most important carbon pools: aboveground biomass in forests and soil organic carbon. Finally, to test the applicability of the simplified protocol of carbon stock estimations, we applied it on wetland plots. These plots were organized following in a state-and-transition model to test whether management decisions are likely to affect wetland carbon stocks. Management actions on aboveground biomass changed carbon stocks between herbaceous and forested wetland. Soil organic carbon, the major carbon stock in wetlands, was unchanged between the different studied stats, illustrating the difficulty to manage soil carbon stocks in the short term.This study shows that method development for field quantification of ecosystem service can lead to simple and reliable protocols. However, the development process is different for each ecosystem service.

Magister Scientiae (Integrated Water Resource Management) / River catchments in agricultural areas are strongly influenced by runoff from cultivated or grazed fields, and nutrient loading of these fields can result in large quantities of nitrates and phosphates being transported to rivers in surface runoff. In intensively farmed areas, nutrient loading is often so high that large quantities of nitrates and phosphates are transported to streams in surface runoff. Within these areas, strips of natural riparian vegetation and wetlands are critical in providing nutrient uptake functions that can reduce the load entering streams. A wetland can be a source, sink or transformer of nutrients, where fine sediments such as silt and clay have the ability to store and trap considerable amounts of phosphorus through adsorption and precipitation processes. Therefore, the determination of phosphorus adsorbed to fine sediment is important in understanding the role and value of wetlands in agricultural landscapes, and is the main focus of this study. The aim of the study is to evaluate an indicator-based approach, WET-EcoServices, to assess wetland sediment and phosphate trapping, through comparison with field survey data. The study focuses on spatial analysis and field survey of three Hydrogeomorphological (HGM) units classified for the Wiesdrift wetland on the Nuwejaars River, Cape Agulhas. The three HGM units are classified as: a floodplain wetland at the inlet of the system, a channelled valley-bottom wetland towards the middle part of the system and a floodplain wetland towards the outlet of the system. In-field observations were recorded for hydrogeomorphic and vegetation characteristics for each HGM Unit. AstroTurf mat sediment samples, grabbed channel bed and floodplain sediment samples were analysed for particle size and orthophosphate concentrations, while suspended sediment masses were recorded from three pairs of time-integrated sediment samplers located near the inlet, near the middle, and near the outlet of the wetland. Statistical analysis showed that orthophosphate concentrations are associated with fine sediment. Thus, the orthophosphate concentrations follow the distribution of silt on the Wiesdrift wetland. The dominant vegetation along transect 2, at which the highest concentrations of orthophosphate was found, is occupied by Typha capensis and Cyperus textilis. The percentage of fine sediment (silt) ranged between 0-37%, where the remaining percentage was sand. There was also a significant positive correlation between orthophosphate concentration and silt (Spearman’s rank-order correlation: rs = 0.692, N = 70, P < .001). The largest total sediment amount was found at Outlet 1 and Outlet 2 in the HGM unit 3 of the Wiesdrift wetland, with a value of 0.653 g. Overall, orthophosphate concentrations ranged between 0 mg/kg and 31320 mg/kg within the Wiesdrift wetland. WET-EcoServices determines an average score for phosphate trapping from on-site indicators such as hydrological zones, vegetation structure and soil texture/permeability. The dispersal of fine sediment and associated adsorbed phosphate is more complex than can be determined by a tool like WET-EcoServices because the tool captures the long-term mean conditions of a wetland system that determines the overall uptake of phosphates over extended time periods, thus future wetland assessments is recommended to take place over a longer period than this study. However, the field results of orthophosphate distribution are generally consistent with the findings from WET-EcoServices, further motivating for the use of the tool in wetland management applications.

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Biologisk mångfald är viktigt att främja i den ökade urbaniseringen då det gör att städer kanbibehålla viktiga funktioner när allt fler ytor blir bebyggda och hårdgjorda. Aktörer som harstor inverkan på detta är golfklubbar som ligger i tätbebyggda områden. Golfbanorna är i förstahand områden för golfspel och rekreation, men på grund av de stora ytorna kan delar av banornasom inte i första hand används till spel utnyttjas för främjandet av biologisk mångfald. Syftetmed studien är att undersöka hur och på vilket sätt golfbanor kan fungera som initiativtagareför hållbar utveckling av lokala stadslandskap samt vilken potential golfbanor har för att ökaden biologiska mångfalden i städer. Metoder som använts för att undersöka detta är kvalitativaintervjuer, dokumentgranskning samt observationsstudier. Resultaten visar att golfklubbarnaarbetar på olika sätt med åtgärder för att främja biologisk mångfald. Det är projekt för att ökaarter av pollinatörer, en medvetenhet kring vilka växtarter som bör användas för att främjavariation och samverkan mellan olika lokala aktörer. Men då det råder brist på uppföljning avhållbarhetsarbetet är det otydligt hur pass stor effekt åtgärderna faktiskt har. Studien harkommit fram till att golfklubbar har stor möjlighet att bidra till främjandet av biologiskmångfald och att höja medvetenheten kring hållbarhetsarbete i tätbebyggda områden. / Biodiversity is crucial to preserve during the increased urbanization since it enables cities tomaintain necessary functions when more and more surfaces become exploited. A stakeholderthat can increase biodiversity is golf clubs located in densely built areas. Golf courses areprimary areas for sport and recreation, but due to the large areas that golf courses uses, largeparts of the courses are not used in the game. These areas can instead be used for the promotionof biodiversity. The purpose of this study is to investigate how and in what way golf coursescan function as initiators for the sustainable development of local urban landscapes and whatpotential golf courses have to increase biological diversity in cities. Methods used arequalitative interviews with golf clubs, a review of documents, and an observational study. Theresults show that the golf clubs work in different ways with measures to promote biodiversity.For example, there are projects to increase species of pollinators, awareness of which plantspecies to use to increase variety, and cooperation between different local actors. But due tothe lack of measuring the outcomes of the actions taken, it is uncertain how well the measureswork. The study has concluded that golf clubs have great opportunities to promote biodiversityand raise awareness of sustainability work in densely built areas.